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REESE  LIBRARY 


UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA, 
1{eceived  -.         ,  igo    . 

zAccession  Mo.    OAiuijQ      .   Class  No. 


A  MANDARIN  OF  THE  SECOND  CLASS. 


A  YOUNG  PEOPLE'S 


HISTORY  OF  THE  CHINESE. 


BY  W.  G.  E  CUNNYNGHAM,  D.D., 

Nine  Years  a  Missionary  in  China. 


WITH   AN   INTRODUCTION   BY 

REV.  COLLINS  DENNY,  M.A. 
Vanderbilt  University. 


FLEMING  H.  REV  ELL  COMPANY: 

Chicago;  new  york;  Toronto. 

PUBLISHERS  OF  EVANGELICAL  LITERATURE. 


Jis-jof 


Copyright,  1896, 
By  Barbee  &  Smith,  Agents. 


REN. 


82908 


PREFACE. 

The  object  of  this  small  volume  is  to  furnish  our  young  peo. 
pie  some  general  information  about  China  and  the  Chinese. 
In  a  catalogue  of  two  hundred  and  fifty  books  on  China,  now 
before  me,  I  find  but  three  intended  specially  for  the  young, 
and  these  are  small  biographies,  containing  little  besides  per- 
sonal incidents.  To  add  something,  however  little,  toward  sup- 
plying this  deficiency  in  our  juvenile  literature,  the  following 
pages  have  been  prepared.  A  consecutive  history  of  the  Chi- 
nese, running  through  the  long  and  dreary  centuries  of  their 
existence,  was  of  course  impracticable.  To  dwell  upon  their 
peculiarities  only,  might  amuse  but  would  not  greatly  profit 
the  youthful  reader.  I  have  therefore  endeavored  to  select 
such  salient  features  in  their  national  character  and  history  as 
would  enable  a  person  of  average  intelligence  to  form  some 
just  idea  of  the  country  and  the  people.  How  far  I  have  suc- 
ceeded in  this  attempt,  the  reader  will  judge. 

Previous  to  the  beginning  of  the  present  century,  compara- 
tively little  was  known  in  Europe  or  America  concerning  the 
people  of  China  or  their  institutions.  Enterprising  travelers, 
from  the  days  of  Marco  Polo,  had  now  and  then  touched  at 
points  on  the  coast  of  China,  and  reported,  with  more  or  less 
accuracy,  what  they  had  seen ;  but  until  1842  no  foreigner  was 
allowed  to  travel  or  reside  on  the  sacred  soil  of  the  "  Celestial 
Empire."  So  that  China  was,  to  the  people  of  the  West,  prac- 
tically  an  unknown  land. 

At  the  close  of  the  "opium  war"  with  England,  in  1842,  five 
ports  on  the  coast  of  China  were  opened  to  foreign  commerce, 
where  foreign  merchants  were  permitted  to  reside  and  conduct 

(5) 


6  PREl^AC^. 

business  with  the  natives.  Christian  missionaries  were  also 
granted  the  privilege  to  live  and  labor  at  the  open  ports;  but 
the  interior  of  the  country  was  still  closed  against  all  "foreign 
barbarians."  Under  these  annoying  restrictions  missionaries 
and  merchants  remained  in  China  until  1858,  when,  by  the 
terms  of  the  Tien-Tsin  treaty,  their  privileges  were  greatly  en- 
larged. Four  new  ports  were  opened  to  trade ;  the  navigation 
of  the  great  river,  the  Yang-tse,  was  made  free  to  all  nations; 
foreigners  were  allowed  to  travel  through  the  country;  Chris- 
tianity was  tolerated,  and  missionaries  given  liberty  to  reside 
anywhere  in  the  empire.  Such  is  the  condition  of  affairs  in 
China  to-day,  and  such  the  privileges  of  all  foreigners  in  treaty 
relations  with  this  old  Hermit  of  the  nations. 

The  recent  war  between  China  and  Japan  attracted  the  at 
tention  of  the  civilized  world.  It  shook  the  dragon  throne  of 
China,  and  disturbed  the  conservative  order  of  things  through- 
out Asia,  and  even  in  Europe.  The  signs  of  the  times  are  om- 
inous of  great  changes  among  the  nations,  especially  in  the 
East.  What  these  changes  will  probably  be,  we  may  not  antic- 
ipate. Our  young  people  should  inform  themselves  as  to  in- 
ternational questions,  and  as  to  the  political  and  moral  condi- 
tion of  the  world. 

In  addition  to  my  own  personal  obsefvations  while  in  China, 
I  have  consulted  the  best  authorities  accessible  to  me.  I  have 
endeavored  to  give  due  credit  where  I  have  borrowed  directly 
anything  from  an  author.  If  in  any  cas2  I  have  failed  to  do 
so,  the  reader  will  please  believe  it  an  oversight. 

I  am  indebted  to  our  Mission  Rooms,  and  to  returned  mission- 
aries, for  most  of  the  illustrations  which  embellish  this  volume 
— that  is,  for  photographs  from  which  they  have  been  engraved. 

W.  G.  E.  C. 

Nashville,  Tenn.,  May,  1896. 


CONTENTS. 


PAGE 


Introduction 9 

I.  Antiquity  of  the  Chinese , » 15 

1 1.    G  EOGRAPHY  of   ChIXA 26 

III.  The  Population  of  China 34 

IV.  The  People  of  China ' 41 

V.  The  Language  of  the  Chinese 55 

VI.  The  Literature  of  the  Chinese 67 

VII.  Government  and  Laws 79 

VIII.  The  Dynasties  of  China 94 

IX.  Religions  of  China 103 

X.  Religions  of  China  (Continued) 118 

XI.  Religions  of  China  (Continued) 130 

XII.  Worship  of  Ancestors 144 

XIII.  The  Sciences  in  China 159 

XIV.  Architecture  of  the  Chinesk 173 

XV.  The  Dress  of  the  Chinese 179 

XVI.  Diet  of  the  Chinese.  .  . , , 187 

XVII.  Agriculture  in  China •, . . .  196 

XVIII.  Manufactures  in  China 206 

XIX.  Social  and  Domestic  Life  in  China 216 

XX.  Festivals  and  Amusements 234 

XXI.  Superstitions  of  the  Chinese 247 

XXII.  Christian  Missions  Among  the  Chinese 265 

Conclusion:  The  Present  Condition  of  China 283 

(7) 


ILLUSTRHTIONS. 

PAGE 

A  Mandarin  of  the  Second  Class Frontispiece 

Sedan  Chair 14 

The  Great  Wall 25 

Chinese  Cooper 40 

Airing  the  Birds 54 

The  Six  Styles  of  Chinese  Characters 59 

Chinese  Band  of  Music 66 

Trial  Before  a  Chinese  Court 78 

Punishment  of  the  Wooden  Collar 93 

Temple  of  Heaven,  Peking 102 

Buddhist  Priest 117 

Temple  of  the  Five  Hundred  Gods,  Canton 129 

Ancestral  Hall 143 

Practicing  Archery 158 

Chinese  Soldiers 158 

Chinese  Carpenter 172 

Chinese  Blacksmith 172 

Chinese  Tailor 180 

Chinese  Shoemaker 183 

Street  Restaurant 186 

Chinese  Cart 195 

Tea-curing  House 202 

Chinese  Loom 205 

Reeling  Silk 205 

Chinese  Artist 211 

Embroidering 211 

Bride  and  Bridegroom 215 

A  Bridal  Procession 226 

City  Wall  and  Canal 233 

Punishment  in  School   246 

Traveling  on  a  Wheelbarrow 264 

Li  Hung  Chang , 282 

(8) 


INTRODUCTION. 

BY    REV.    COLLINS    DENNY,    M.A. 

A  QUAINT  application  of  the  familiar  proverb, 
"One  good  turn  deserves  another,"  is  that  a  benefit 
conferred  lays  ground  for  the  expectation  of  an- 
other benefit.  It  is  certainly  true  that  when  one 
gives  out  of  his  resources  what  will  be  for  the  wel- 
fare of  others,  the  act  of  giving  tends  to  rouse  in 
the  giver  an  interest  in  those  he  benefits ;  and  inter- 
est frequently  rouses  love,  and  love  is  accompanied 
by  the  feeling  of  obligation.  The  giver  thus  comes  to 
feel  himself  the  debtor  to  those  for  whom  he  has  al- 
ready done  so  much,  and  the  payment  of  such  debts 
is  one  of  the  most  unalloyed  pleasures  of  this  life. 
The  apostle  to  the  Gentiles  declares  that  he  was  debt- 
or both  to  the  Greeks  and  to  the  Barbarians,  and  the 
payment  of  his  debt  was  doubtless  one  of  the  sweet- 
est drops  in  his  cup  of  joy.  No  true  mother  consid- 
ers what  her  love  impels  her  to  do  for  her  child  a 
hardship.  He  who  is  Lord  of  all  became  the  servant 
of  all,  and  died  for  all,  because  he  loved  all. 

Dr.  Cunnyngham  has  spent  many  of  the  years 
of  his  long  life  in  work  for  the  young  people,  yet 
this  book  is  evidence  that  he  has  not  lost  his  in- 
terest in  those  for  whom  he  has  labored.  These 
long  years  of  work  give  him  many  qualifications  for 
the  preparation  of  a  new  book  intended  chiefly  for 
young  people,  not  the  least  of  which  qualifications 
is  his  increasing  love  for  his  beneficiaries — his  de- 
sire to  promote  their  welfare. 

f.^        OF  THK 

UNIVERSITY 


10  INTRODUCTION. 

But  Dr.  Cunnyngham,  who  has  planted  so  many 
of  his  days  in  the  hves  of  young  people,  has  spe- 
cial qualifications  for  the  work  he  has  undertaken. 
He  spent  nine  years  in  China,  studying  the  people, 
working  for  them  and  with  them.  It  has  been  said 
that  the  reason  some  people  wear  only  one  eye- 
glass is  because  they  see  through  their  one  glass  a 
great  deal  more  than  they  comprehend ;  and  a  man 
may  spend  a  lifetime  in  a  community  and  not  thor- 
oughly know  the  community.  The  knowledge  a 
man  brings  back  from  a  residence  in  any  country 
depends  very  much  on  the  man.  In  this  instance 
the  man  is  a  Christian,  a  minister  of  the  gospel,  a 
former  missionary;  one  who  went  to  the  people, 
lived  among  them,  studied  their  language,  yea 
studied  them,  that  he  might  supplant  their  error 
with  the  truth  of  God.  In  addition  to  this  long 
personal  knowledge  of  the  Chinese,  Dr.  Cunnyng- 
ham has  not  only  been  a  close  student  of  the  liter- 
ature relating  to  China  and  her  people,  but  since 
his  return  to  America  he  has  also  kept  himself  in 
close,  living  touch  with  many  of  the  workers  in  that 
land.  The  book  will  be  the  best  evidence  that  his 
residence  in  China  and  his  close  study  of  the  liter- 
ature of  the  subject  qualified  him  to  write  a  history 
of  the  people  among  whom  he  so  long  lived. 

The  subject  of  this  book  claims  attention.  It 
is  a  young  people's  history;  but  not  a  history  of 
wars,  of  dynasties,  of  court  gossip.  It  was  a  mag- 
nificent advance  when  historians  presented  the 
world  with  the  results  of  their  study,  not  of  a  ruler 


INTRODUCTION.  II 

simply,  but  of  a  people.  In  this  instance  we  are 
given  the  history  of  a  people  singularly  ignored 
b}^  the  vast  majority  even  of  students  of  history, 
yet  of  a  people  from  whom  the  world  can  learn 
many  interesting  and  profitable  lessons. 

All  of  us  have  read  of  nations  whose  course  we 
followed  from  their  strong  youth  to  their  graves. 
One  by  one  those  nations  we  are  wont  to  call  an- 
cient went  out  of  existence,  and  this  is  so  constant- 
ly repeated  that  we  are  not  surprised  to  be  told  of 
the  islander  who  shall  in  some  future  time  sit  upon 
the  remnants  of  London  Bridge  and  gaze  won- 
deringly  on  the  ruins  of  the  city's  great  cathe- 
dral. We  no  more  expect,  until  the  exceptional 
case  occurs,  to  find  a  nation  ending  indefinitely 
than  we  expect  to  find  a  white  crow.  It  may  star- 
tle us  to  learn  that  the  Chinese  have  a  history  of 
a  life  unbroken  for  more  than  four  thousand 
years;  that  this  people,  substantially  as  we  now  find 
them,  looked  down  on  the  cradle  of  nations  we 
call  ancient,  nations  long  since  vanished.  The 
Greeks  were  great,  in  some  important  points  great 
enough  to  be  our  recognized  masters;  but  they 
were  not  great  enough  to  lay  the  foundations  of 
their  national  life  so  firmly  as  to  endure.  The 
Romans  were  strong,  their  legions  tramped  the 
world  almost  at  will;  but  they  were  not  strong 
enough  to  maintain  a  national  life  as  long  as  that 
of  the  Chinese.  Some  nations  have  gone  down 
because  hollow  within  they  could  not  resist  the 
pressure  from  without;    and  some  have  been  de- 


t2  INTRODUCTION. 

stroyed  because  of  internal  conflagration.  The 
Chinese  show  the  world  a  nation  not  so  hollow  as 
to  have  been  broken  by  the  strongest  pressure  to 
which  they  have  so  far  been  subjected  from  with- 
out, nor  so  inflammable  as  to  have  been  consumed 
by  the  fires  kindled  from  within.  The  long  life  of 
this  people  commands  our  attention  and  presents  us 
with  a  problem  whose  solution  may  be  of  the  great- 
est profit  to  ourselves.  Is  their  endurance  due  to 
some  of  the  elements  peculiar  to  their  environment, 
or  to  their  racial  traits,  or  to  some  of  the  features 
of  their  dominant  ideals?  No  single  circumstance 
is  ever  the  cause  of  an  event;  both  the  moving  ham- 
mer and  the  whole  stone  must  be  included  among 
the  antecedents  some  of  whose  consequents  are  a 
broken  stone  and  a  hammer  at  rest.  The  long  na- 
tional life  of  the  Chinese  is  a  complex  event  whose 
cause  must  be  an  aggregate  of  different  elements. 
Can  we  find  the  tough  fibers  of  this  strong  cable 
that  has  enabled  the  Chinese  to  ride  out  the  storms 
in  which  so  many  nations  have  been  wrecked? 

An  isolated  people,  provided  their  territory  be 
small  and  their  numbers  few,  may  escape  for  many 
years  the  disasters  that  break  on  the  heads  of 
others;  but  in  the  case  of  the  Chinese  we  have  a 
people  whose  territory  is  one  of  the  most  extensive 
of  the  earth,  and  a  population  far  more  numerous 
than  any  other  nation.  Surely  students  and  readers 
cannot  much  longer  ignore  the  Chinese ;  it  is  not  to 
their  credit  that  they  have  so  long  passed  them  by. 

''  The  greatest  thing  on  earth  is  man,"  because 


INTRODUCTION.  I3 

he  is  truly  not  a  thing,  but  a  person  with  possibili- 
ties not  yet  fully  calculated  by  our  finite  minds.  If 
it  be  not  correct  to  say  the  sole  **  proper  study  of 
mankind  is  man,''  it  is  true  that  man  is  a  worthy 
stud}^  Heretofore  man  has  not  been  studied  in 
all  the  variations  of  circumstances  to  which  he  has 
been  subjected.  He  has  not  been  looked  at  criti- 
cally, lovingly,  and  exhaustively  in  what,  from  our 
point  of  view,  are  the  narrower  opportunities  of  Chi- 
nese civilization.  But  how  can  we  expect  to  make 
valuable  inductions  about  our  race,  or  even  com- 
plete statementsof  observations  of  the  race,  while  we 
refuse  to  investigate  carefully  the  phenomena  pre- 
sented by  the  millions  in  China?  They  lack  many 
of  the  things  esteemed  by  us  to  be  necessities,  yet 
from  a  worldly  standpoint  some  of  them  may  be 
called  happy.  Let  the  powers  of  the  world  to 
come  take  hold  upon  him,  and  without  denation- 
alizing him  regenerate  him,  then  who  can  doubt 
that  the  Christian  Chinese  may  have  as  distinct  a 
lesson  for  the  world  and  as  noble  a  work  as  the 
Christian  Anglo-Saxon?  A  true  appreciation  of 
these  strangers  in  the  East  will  lead  to  a  willingness 
to  receive  from  them  anything  of  good  they  may 
be  able  to  contribute  to  the  true  development  of  the 
world,  and  to  return  to  them  what  they  lack  of  the 
greatest  elements  in  our  Christian  civilization. 

May  the  young  who  read  this  history  become  so 
interested  in  the  wonderful  people  of  whom  it  treats 
that  when  older  they  may  help  to  solve  some  of  the 
problems  the  Chinese  present  to  the  world. 

Vanderbilt  University,  Afril  13,  1896. 


(14) 


^  OF  THE  r 

UNIVERSITY 


•S^CAUFOg^ 

A  YOUNG  PEOPLE'S  HISTORY  OF  THE  CHINESE. 


w 


CHAPTER  I. 
Antiquity  of  the  Chinese. 

E  are  indebted  to  the  Arabs  for  the  first  defi- 
nite information  we  have  concerning  China 
and  its  inhabitants.  In  A.D.  850,  and  also  in  A.D. 
877,  two  enterprising  Arabian  travelers  visited  the 
eastern  coast  of  Asia,  and  among  other  coun- 
tries, then  unknown  to  western  nations,  which 
they  explored  was  the  empire  of  China.  They 
spent  some  months  among  that  strange  people, 
studying  their  language,  customs,  and  manners, 
their  arts  and  manufactures,  and  on  their  return 
to  their  own  country  reported  what  they  had  seen 
and  heard.  During  their  travels  they  kept  a  jour- 
nal, which  was  afterwards  translated  and  pub- 
lished. Their  account  of  China  and  its  people 
agrees  so  exactly  with  what  we  know  of  them 
to-day,  though  more  than  a  thousand  years  have 
passed  away,  as  to  give  great  credibility  to  their 
narrative. 

In  1274  the  great  Venetian  traveler,  Marco  Po- 
lo, entered  China  and  spent  seventeen  years  at 
the  court  of  the  Mongolian  conqueror  of  China, 
Kublai-Khan.     His    report    of    the    country,    the 

(15) 


i6 


HISTORY   OF   THE    CHINESE. 


population,  wealth,  and  resources  of  China,  was 
received  with  incredulity  by  his  countrymen,  and 
by  Europeans  generally.  These  doubts  have, 
however,  long  since  given  place  to  admiration  for 
the  simple  and  faithful  statements  of  the  honest 
and  truthful  Venetian. 

Pope  Nicholas,  in  1288,  sent  John  De  Carvino 
as  a  missionary  to  China.  He  was  the  first  suc- 
cessful agent  of  the  Roman  Catholic  Church  in 
the  East,  and  a  man  of  great  learning  and  zeal. 
His  descriptions  of  China  and  the  Chinese  con- 
firm the  reports  of  the  Arabian  travelers,  of  Marco 
Polo,  and  others  who  visited  that  country  in  the 
thirteenth  and  sixteenth  centuries,  showing  that 
China  has  changed  but  little  through  the  ages  of 
her  long  national  history.  She  is  substantially 
the  same  to-day  that  she  was  three  thousand  years 
ago. 

When  western  scholars  first  began  their  re- 
searches into  Chinese  history,  they  discovered 
that  some  native  writers  claimed  a  very  great  an- 
tiquity for  their  country,  even  tens  of  thousands  of 
years.  This  fact  was  eagerly  seized  by  European 
skeptics  as  casting  discredit  upon  the  compara- 
tively recent  account  of  Moses.  They  declared 
that  Chinese  history  proved  that  **  the  Bible  is  un- 
reliable;" that  *' the  Bible  history  is  contradict- 
ed by  the  authentic  records  of  ancient  nations;" 
that  "  according  to  Chinese  chronology  the  peo- 
ple of  China  w^ere  laying  the  foundations  of  their 
pmpire   at  the   time   when,    according    to    Moses, 


ANTIQUITY   OF  THE   CHINESE.  1 7 

God  was  creating  the  heavens  and  the  earth;  and 
that  the  Chinese  husbandman  was  tilUng  his  farm 
at  the  time  Moses  represents  Adam  as  cultivating 
the  garden  of  Eden,"  etc. 

Subsequent  and  more  careful  investigation  of 
the  subject,  however,  showed  that  the  Chinese  di- 
vide history  into  three  periods:  "  The  Unknown," 
'*The  Fabulous,"  and  "The  Known."  "The 
Unknown  "  belongs  to  the  age  of  the  gods,  and 
has  no  record  in  time — its  events  are  known  only 
to  the  gods.  "  The  Fabulous  "  embraces  the  pre- 
historic period  between  the  age  of  the  gods  and 
the  appearance  of  the  first  man,  or  the  age  of  the 
sages.  The  first  period  has  no  chronology,  and 
no  history.  The  second  period  is  characterized 
as  mythological,  by  reputable  Chinese  writers,  in 
which  appear  the  fabulous  rulers :  ( i )  The  *  *  celes- 
tial emperor,"  who  reigned  forty-five  thousand 
years;  (2)  His  successor,  the  "terrestrial  emper- 
or," who  reigned  fifty  thousand  years;  (3)  After 
these  the  "  human  emperor,"  whose  reign  lasted 
only  eighteen  thousand  years.  The  third  period 
begins  with  the  first  real  character  in  Chinese 
history,  the  Emperor  Yu,  and  continues  down  to 
the  present  time. 

It  w^ill  thus  be  seen  that  the  Chinese,  like  most 
other  heathen  nations,  have  a  mythological  feri- 
od  of  indefinite  duration,  covering  the  unknown 
ages  which  passed  away  before  the  appearance 
of  man  on  the  earth ;  and  a  chronological  period, 
beginning  with  the  first  recorded  event  in  authea- 
2 


l8  HISTORY   OF   THE    CHINESE. 

tic  history,  and  coming  on  down  to  the  current 
year.  No  reputable  Chinese  historian  has  any 
more  respect  for  the  absurd  legends  of  the  myth- 
ological age  than  we  have.  It  was  these  mytho- 
logical fables  that  led  the  early  students  of  Chi- 
nese history  into  the  mistake  of  supposing  that 
there  were  authentic  records  in  China  running 
back  into  the  misty  ages  of  antiquity  far  beyond 
the  beginning  of  our  biblical  chronology.  The 
European  skeptics  enjoyed  but  a  short  season  of 
exultation  over  the  friends  of  Moses  and  the  Bible. 
It  was  soon  discovered  that  Chinese  history,  so  far 
from  casting  discredit  upon  the  record  of  Moses, 
tends  strongly  to  confirm  it.  The  argument,  there- 
fore, against  the  authenticity  of  our  Scriptures, 
based  upon  the  supposed  historical  records  of  Chi- 
na, like  a  similar  argument  founded  upon  the  fabu- 
lous legends  of  the  Egyptians  and  Hindoos  some 
years  before,  had  to  be  abandoned  by  its  advo- 
cates, and  Moses  is  still  read  and  believed  by  mil- 
lions of  intelligent  and  good  people. 

The  first  real  character  in  Chinese  history,  ac- 
cording to  the  most  reliable  authorities,  native  and 
foreign,  was  the  Emperor  Yu,  who  began  to  reign 
somewhere  about  the  year  B.C.  2204.  The  ex- 
act date  cannot  be  ascertained,  for  at  that  early 
da}"  there  were  no  written  records,  and  the  his- 
torians who  subsequently  wrote  of  the  beginning 
of  their  national  annals  were  entirely  dependent 
upon  tradition,  a  most  unreliable  and  unsatisfac- 
tory source  of  information.     The  earliest  authen- 


OK   •,-„,-    ^f^l        ^ 

ANTIQUITY   OF   THE    CHINESE. 

tic  written  history  of  the  Chinese  people  belongs 
to  the  age  of  Confucius,  B.C.  549;  not  that  there 
was  no  written  history,  or  what  claimed  to  be  his- 
tory, before  that  age,  but  it  is  to  the  great  sage 
that  we  are  indebted  for  the  first  authentic  and  di- 
gested history  of  the  Chinese  people,  their  cus- 
toms, manners,  and  institutions.  The  great  Chi- 
nese historian,  Chu-foo-tsz,  next  to  Confucius, 
is  an  authority  on  all  matters  of  ancient  history. 
"From  these  and  other  native  writers  modern 
historians  have  gathered  all  they  know  about  the 
early  history  of  China,  and  they  all  agree  in  re- 
garding the  Emperor  Yu  as  the  first  authentic  his- 
torical character."  * 

**  If,  then,"  says  Dr.  Medhurst,  "  we  consider 
Yu  to  be  the  first  real  character  in  Chinese  his- 
tory, and  place  the  beginning  of  his  reign  at  B.C. 
2204,  or  one  hundred  and  four  years  after  the 
flood,  about  the  age  of  Peleg,  when  the  earth 
was  divided,  we  shall  find  that  it  gives  time  for 
such  an  increase  of  the  human  family  as  would 
admit  of  emigration,  and  yet  allow  for  China  be- 
ing in  such  a  state  of  marsh  as  to  require  drain- 
ing for  the  sake  of  cultivation,  which  service  was 
ascribed  to  the  labors  of  Yu.  Thus  the  empire 
of  China,  when  deprived  of  its  fabulous  and 
traditionary  periods,  is  still  very  ancient.  The 
Chinese  must  have  branched  off  from  the  great 
human  family  immediately  after  the  Dispersion 
(Genesis  x.),  and,  traveling  to  the  farther  East, 

*  Medhurst:  "State  and  Prospects  of  China," 


20  HISTORY   OF   THE   CHINESE. 

settled  down  on  the  borders  of  the  Yellow  River, 
coeval  with  the  establishment  of  the  Babylonian 
and  Egyptian  monarchies."*  Thus,  ere  Rome 
was  founded  or  Trov  was  taken,  before  Thebes 
and  Nineveh  were  erected  into  kingdoms,  China 
was  a  settled  state,  under  a  regular  form  of  gov- 
ernment, with  customs  and  institutions  similar  in 
many  respects  to  those  it  now  possesses. 

If  Confucius  were  to  revisit  his  native  land  to- 
day, he  would  find  things  generally  pretty  much 
as  he  left  them  more  than  two  thousand  years  ago. 
He  could  read  the  last  book  published,  if  not  the 
last  bulletin  posted.  He  would  find  hundreds  of 
thousands,  if  not  millions,  of  scholars  who  could 
repeat  verbatim  et  literatim  all  he  ever  wrote; 
and  he  would  also  find  himself  still  enthroned  as 
*'the  peerless  and  unapproachable  master,"  whom 
millions  worship  at  myriads  of  altars. 

The  question  has  been  asked  again  and  again, 
but  never  satisfactorily  answered:  "How  is  it 
that  China  has  thus  lived  through  so  many  cen- 
turies, successfully  resisting  the  laws  of  national 
decay,  while  every  other  nation  that  began  its 
course  with  her  has  long  since  disappeared  from 
the  face  of  the  earth,  or  been  so  changed  as 
to  lose  its  national  idei.tity?"  Babylon,  Egypt, 
Nineveh,  Greece,  and  Rome,  once  the  contem- 
poraries of  China,  lie  buried  in  the  dust  of  the 
dead  past;  yet  China  survives  in  all  her  original 

*  See  Parke's  History  of  China,  1588;  Chinese  Repository, 
Vol.  X.,  No.  3. 


ANTIQUITY  OF  THE   CHINESE.  21 

integrity,  the  one  lone  monument  of  antiquity  on 
the  plains  of  time  that  has  not  been  destroyed  or 
dismantled  by  the  hand  of  decay  or  the  storms  of 
revolution. 

What  has  China  done  for  the  world  to  entitle 
her  to  such  distinction  among  the  nations?  What 
promise  does  she  give  of  service  to  mankind  ?  Her 
great  longevity  is  as  much  an  historical  enig- 
ma as  the  preservation  of  the  Jews  through  so 
many  ages  of  national  vicissitude.  But  we  know 
what  the  Jews  have  done  for  the  human  race. 
They  have  preserved  through  the  dark  centuries 
of  the  past  a  knowledge  of  the  true  God,  his  word 
and  his  worship,  and  above  all  they  have  given 
the  world  its  Messiah.  Besides,  many  believe 
that  they  are  yet  destined  to  bless  the  world  as 
*'the  chosen  people  of  God."  China,  on  the 
contrary,  has  been  atheistic  and  idolatrous,  has 
dishonored  God  and  despised  his  law.  She  has 
lived  in  wantonness  and  pride  through  all  her  gen- 
erations, and  in  her  self-sufficiency  has  hated  and 
scorned  all  other  nations.  She  has  neither  feared 
God  nor  regarded  her  fellow-man,  and  now  in  her 
withered  old  age  still  clings  to  the  traditions  and 
customs  of  her  early  days ;  she  is  still  selfish  and 
egotistical,  arrogant  and  insolent  toward  other  na- 
tions. 

Some  writers  have  attributed  the  great  longevity 
of  China  to  natural  causes,  such  as  '*  geograph- 
ical position,  the  generally  favorable  climate,  the 
average  fertility  of   the  soil,  great  facility  of  in- 


22  HISTORY   OF   THE   CHINESE. 

ternal  commerce,"  etc.*  Some  have  attributed 
it  to  moral  causes,  such  as  the  fact  that  the  Chi- 
nese have  never  deified  vice  in  any  form;  others, 
to  the  observance  of  the  fifth  commandment. 

None  of  these  suggestions  seem  to  be  entirely 
satisfactory.  Other  countries  have  enjoyed  as 
great  natural  advantages  as  China,  as  friendly 
climates,  as  fertile  soils,  as  good  water,  and  all 
other  favorable  conditions,  and  yet  they  have  not 
passed  the  average  age  of  the  nations.  As  to  the 
moral  causes — that  the  Chinese  have  never  deified 
vice  in  any  form.  In  this  matter  they  can  claim 
only  a  limited  negative  virtue,  for  they  have  en- 
shrined in  their  hearts  and  practiced  in  their  lives 
all  that  Bacchus  and  Venus  represent.  There  is 
not  a  more  sensual  people  on  earth  than  the  Chi- 
nese, their  own  writers  being  witnesses.  There 
is  not  a  sin  mentioned  by  St.  Paul,  in  the  cata- 
logue of  vices  enumerated  in  the  first  chapter  of 
Romans,  of  which  they  are  not  guilty.  I  do  not 
say  all  the  Chinese  are  thus  guilty,  but  the  sins  re- 
ferred to  are  practiced  more  or  less  by  them  as  a 
people. 

That  the  Chinese  do,  in  a  sense,  observe  the 
fifth  commandment  is  true — they  do  reverence 
their  parents,  and  after  their  death  they  worship 
them ;  but  they  know  nothing  about  the  command 
of  God  requiring  children  to  honor  their  fathei 
and  mother,  and  do  not  do  it  as  an  act  of  obedi- 
ence to  God,  but    as    an    act   of   idolatry.     They 

*Sir  John  Davis. 


Antiquity  of  the  Chinese.  23 

have  made  reverence  for  their  parents  an  occa- 
sion of  sin.  Ancestral  worship  is  the  most  uni- 
versal form  of  idolatry  in  China.  All  worship  at 
the  ancestral  shrine,  the  old  and  the  young,  the 
great  and  the  small,  the  rich  and  the  poor,  from 
the  emperor  on  the  Dragon  Throne  to  the  beggar  in 
the  street — all  worship  their  dead  ancestors.  They 
may  worship  at  no  other  altar,  but  all  worship 
here.  That  this  universal  sin  could  become  a 
reason  why  God  should  specially  bless  the  Chinese 
as  a  nation,  and  preserve  them  through  so  many 
ages,  is  a  species  of  logic  I  cannot  indorse.  Of 
all  the  obstacles  in  the  way  of  the  Christian  mis- 
sionary in  China,  the  most  formidable  is  ancestral 
worship.  The  Chinese  will  give  up  all  other 
forms  of  idolatry  before  they  will  this.  To  neg- 
lect the  tombs  of  their  ancestors  is  an  act  of  in- 
gratitude and  sacrilege  at  which  they  obstinately 
revolt. 

That  China  is  the  oldest  nation  in  the  world  there 
can  be  no  reasonable  doubt,  but  what  causes  have 
operated  to  preserve  her  through  so  many  centu- 
ries we  are  unable  to  say.  Revolution  after  revo- 
lution has  swept  over  the  land,  and  her  dynasties 
have  been  changed  twenty-five  times,  and  two  hun- 
dred and  forty-three  emperors  have  occupied  the 
Dragon  Throne ;  but  still  China  remains  substan- 
tially the  same  through  all  these  changes  that  she 
was  when  Abraham  was  in  Chaldea,  or  Joseph  in 
Egypt.  From  the  first  emperor,  Yu,  to  the  pres- 
ent ''  year  of  grace  "  ( 1896)  is  four  thousand  and 


^4  HISTORY  OF  THE   CHINESE. 

one  hundred  years.  What  great  events  in  human 
history  have  taken  place  during  these  forty  cen- 
turies !  The  Chinese  were  hving  w^here  they  are 
now,  and  quietly  cultivating  the  soil,  or  fighting 
the  *' barbarians,"  when  Israel  marched  out  of 
Egypt;  when  God  gave  the  law  to  Moses  amid 
the  awful  scenes  in  Sinai;  when  David  was  king; 
when  the  Queen  of  Sheba  visited  Solomon ;  when 
Nebuchadnezzar  took  Jerusalem ;  when  Alexander 
conquered  Egypt;  when  America  was  discovered; 
and — to-day.  We  dare  not  predict  anything  for 
the  future.  Recent  events  have  awakened  a  deep 
interest  throughout  the  Christian  world  in  the  for- 
tunes of  China.  War  with  Japan,  internal  com- 
motions, foreign  complications,  and  national  imbe- 
cility seem  to  threaten  the  integrity  of  this  ancient 
empire. 


CHAPTER  II. 
Geography  of  China. 

THE  present  empire  of  China  consists  of  five 
great  divisions:  Manchooria,  Mongolia,  Tur- 
kestan, Thibet,  and  the  Eighteen  Provinces,  or 
China  Proper.  It  is  to  the  last  that  reference  is 
usually  made  when  speaking  or  writing  of  China. 
The  others  are  provinces  of  great  extent,  but  thinly 
inhabited,  and  of  a  low  grade  of  civilization. 

Manchooria  is  the  home  of  the  Manchoo  Tar- 
tars, a  half-civilized  and  half-nomadic  race,  which 
has  attracted  the  notice  of  foreigners  chiefly  be- 
cause of  its  connection  with  China.  The  present 
imperial  dynasty  is  descended  from  the  Manchoos. 

Mongolia  lies  immediately  north  of  the  Eight- 
een Provinces,  and  is  a  wild  and  desert  country, 
consisting  mainly  of  barren  wastes.  The  inhab- 
itants are  roving  nomads,  who  live  in  tents,  and 
follow  their  flocks  as  they  wander  from  place  to 
place.  They  are  devout  Lamaistic  Buddhists,  fierce 
and  fanatical. 

Turkestan  is  situated  in  the  northwestern  bor- 
ders of  the  Eighteen  Provinces,  and  is  inhabited 
by  a  settled  Turkish  race  of  Mohammedans.  Il 
contains  the  two  celebrated  cities  of  Cashgar  and 
Yarkand,  with  several  smaller  cities. 

Thibet  is  west  of  China  Proper,  and  is  inhabited 
(26) 


GEOGRAPHY   OF   CHINA. 


27 


by  a  settled  people,  and  is  the  headquarters  of  the 
Lamaistic  form  of  Buddhism.  The  chief  or  high 
priest  of  this  strange  sect  claims  to  be  the  incar- 
nate Buddha.     The  capital  of  Thibet  is  Lassa. 

These  four  great  divisions  of  the  Chinese  em- 
pire are  not  inhabited  by  the  Chinese,  but  by  sep- 
arate and  distinct  races,  each  race  speaking  its  own 
language,  and  distinguished  by  its  own  peculiar 
national  characteristics,  customs,  and  manners. 
The  Chinese  speak  of  them  as  "  outside  the  gates" 
— that  is,  outside  of  China  Proper. 

As  the  following  pages  will  be  devoted  to  a 
brief  description  of  China  and  the  Chinese  people, 
no  further  notice  will  be  taken  of  the  provincial 
dependencies.  The  reader  will  please  therefore 
remember  that  what  is  hereafter  said  about  China 
refers  to  the  Eighteen  Provinces,  or  what  is  known 
as  China  Proper. 

China  is  situated  on  the  eastern  coast  of  Asia,  and 
contains  about  one-half  of  the  whole  territory  of  the 
empire.  It  is  1,474  miles  in  length,  and  about  1,355 
miles  in  breadth,  with  a  coast  line  of  2,500  miles. 
Its  area  is  1,399,609  square  miles,  '*  comprising 
within  its  limits  every  variety  of  soil  and  climate ; 
watered  by  large  rivers,  and  producing  within  its 
borders  everything  necessary  for  the  support  and 
comfort  of  man."  *  . 

Most  of  the  great  empires  of  Asia  extend  along 
its  southern  border,  chiefly  upon  the  shores  of  the 
Indian  Ocean,  and  are  bounded  on  the  north  by  the 


*"  Middle  Kingdom." 


UNIVERSITY 


28  HISTORY   OF  THE   CHINESE. 

snowy  peaks  and  pastoral  wilds  of  Tartary.  China, 
on  the  contrary,  is  situated  on  the  Pacific,  at  the 
extremity  of  the  Asiatic  continent.  The  climate 
is  generally  salubrious,  but,  like  all  other  coun- 
tries situated  on  the  eastern  side  of  a  great  conti- 
nent, is  subject  to  extremes  of  heat  and  cold  at 
different  seasons  of  the  year,  not  always  corre- 
sponding with  the  degrees  of  latitude.  Thus  in  the 
northern  part  of  China  the  mercury  often  rises  to 
80°  and  90^,  and  in  the  southern  part  frequently 
falls  below  zero  in  the  winter.* 

The  whole  surface  of  the  country  is  diversified 
by  mountain  ranges,  extensive  plains,  and  undu- 
lating highlands.  The  lofty  mountains  which  wall 
in  the  territory  of  Thibet  and  Tartary  as  they  enter 
China  sink  down  into  elevations  of  moderate  alti- 
tude. Two  great  rivers,  the  Yang-tse  (child  of  the 
ocean)  and  the  Wong-hoo,  or  Yellow  River,  cor- 
responding to  the  two  great  rivers  of  our  country, 
roll  through  the  land  from  west  to  east,  fertilizing 
extensive  valleys,  and  furnishing  the  means  of 
trade  and  travel  for  the  milHons  of  central  and 
eastern  China.  There  are  other  rivers  that  afford 
facilities  for  inland  navigation,  which,  wdth  the 
Yang-tse  and  Wong-hoo,  give  the  people  of  China 
unequaled  advantages  in  water  ways.  There  are 
several  lakes  in  China,  but  none  of  sufficient  size 
or  commercial  importance  to  require  special  men- 
tion in  this  place. 

The    Grand    Canal    is    a   stupendous  w^ork, 

*  Sir  John  Davis:  "Middle  Kingdom." 


GEOGRAPHY  OF   CHINA. 


29 


equaled  only  by  the  Great  Wall  of  China.  By 
means  of  its  connections  with  the  rivers  which  flow 
into  it,  an  almost  entire  water  communication  is 
completed  across  the  country  from  Tien-Tsm, 
near  Peking  in  the  north,  to  Hang-Chow  in  the 
south,  a  distance  of  six  hundred  geographical 
miles,  or  '* forty  days'  travel,"  as  the  Chinese  esti- 
mate its  length.  It  is  sometimes  said  to  be  fifteen 
hundred  miles  long,  but  this  is  in  Chinese  miles,  or 
lee^  which  is  only  about  one-third  of  our  mile.  It 
is  a  great  artificial  river,  costing  millions  of  dollars 
to  construct,  and  millions  more  to  keep  it  in  re- 
pair, and  therefore  entitled  to  a  place  in  any  de- 
scription of  the  physical  geography  of  China.  It 
crosses  the  Yellow  River  about  seventy  miles  from 
its  mouth,  and  for  ninety  miles  (between  the 
Yang-tse  and  Yellow  River)  runs  parallel  with  the 
latter,  being  carried  through  all  this  distance  upon 
a  mound  of  earth  not  less  than  twenty  feet  above 
the  level  of  the  surrounding  country.  The  em- 
bankment of  earth  on  each  side  of  the  canal  is 
held  in  place  by  strong  stone  walls,  or  heavy 
earthen  banks.  Its  depth  varies  from  a  few  feel 
to  several  fathoms,  and  its  width  from  one  hundred 
feet  to  half  a  mile,  according  to  the  character  of 
the  country  through  which  it  passes.  Stone  abut- 
ments and  floodgates  are  used  to  regulate  the  flow 
of  the  water,  and  occur  at  irregular  distances  ac- 
cording to  the  inequalities  of  the  surface  of  the  land. 
Hundreds  of  thousands  of  men  were  employed  for 
an  indefinite  time  on  this  great  work.     If  the  age 


30  HISTORY   OF   THE    CHINESE. 

in  which  this  great  national  work  was  completed, 
and  the  character  of  the  princes  who  planned  it, 
be  considered,  few  labors  of  human  hands  in  any 
country  in  the  world  can  be  compared  to  it  for  ex- 
tent and  usefulness.  The  Grand  Canal  passes 
through  some  of  the  most  beautiful  scenery  in 
China — rich  valleys  covered  with  highly  cultivated 
farms,  villages,  hamlets,  and  cities,  tea  gardens, 
mulberry  orchards,  peach  orchards,  and  all  the  va- 
riety of  rural  scenery  to  be  found  in  any  country. 
Again,  it  follows  along  the  foot  of  an  extensive 
mountam  range,  and  winds  its  way  through  natu- 
ral passes  into  the  plains  beyond,  then  on  by  Soo- 
chow,  Nankin,  and  the  '*  Golden  Isle"  to  the  ter- 
minus. As  it  approaches  the  province  of  Canton 
in  southern  China,  its  way  has  been  cut  by  im- 
mense labor  through  a  range  of  mountains  which 
separates  the  province  of  Kiang-Si  from  Canton. 
This  part  of  the  work  is  said  to  have  been  done  by 
an  individual  during  the  Tang  dynasty,  more  than 
a  thousand  years  ago.* 

—  The  Great  Wall  of  China  deserves  to  be 
considered  in  a  geographical  point  of  view^  and 
may  therefore  be  noticed  in  this  connection.  It 
was  built  by  the  first  universal  monarch  of  China, 
more  than  two  thousand  years  ago.  It  bounds  the 
whole  north  of  China,  running  along  the  frontiers 
of  three  provinces.  The  emperors  of  the  Ming 
dynasty  built  an  additional  inner  wall  near  to  Pe- 
king on  the  west.      The  body  of  the  wall  consists 

*  Davis:  " ]SIiddle  Kingdom." 


GEOGRAPHY   OF   CHINA. 


31 


of  an  earthen  mound,  supported  on  each  side  by 
strong  stone  and  brick  masonry.  The  average 
height  is  about  twenty-five  feet.  In  some  places  it 
rises  only  a  few  feet  above  the  level  of  the  ground, 
as  on  rugged  elevations  where  access  to  it  is  diffi- 
cult, and  in  other  places  to  fifty  and  sixty  feet. 
The  thickness  of  the  wall  at  the  base  averages 
twenty-five  or  thirty  feet,  and  at  the  top  fifteen 
feet.  Towers  rise  at  frequent  intervals,  and  are 
sometimes  forty  feet  square  at  the  base  and  thirty 
at  the  top.  It  ascends  the  highest  mountains,  and 
descends  into  the  deepest  vallevs,  crossing  over 
rivers,  and  stretching  its  great  length  for  fifteen 
hundred  miles,  more  or  less.  Authorities  differ 
as  to  the  actual  length  of  this  artificial  barrier, 
intended  to  protect  the  peaceable  inhabitants  of 
China  from  the  incursions  of  the  savage  barbari- 
ans on  their  northern  borders. 

The  coast  of  China,  south  of  the  Shan-Toong 
province,  except  at  the  mouth  of  the  two  great  riv- 
ers and  the  well-known  commercial  harbors,  is 
generally  bold  and  rocky,  and  is  lined  throughout 
its  whole  extent,  from  Hainan  to  the  mouth  of  the 
Yang-tse,  with  multitudes  of  islands  and  rocky 
islets.  The  interior  of  the  Eighteen  Provinces  is 
divided  into  the  mountainous,  the  hilly  country, 
and  the  Great  Plain. 

The  soil  of  China  is  generally  fertile,  and  ren- 
ders a  rich  return  of  harv^ests  to  even  the  unskilled 
labor  of  the  isfnorant  natives.  It  is  also  well  wa- 
tered,  and  in  some  parts  covered  by  noble  forests. 

k 


32  HISTORY   OF   THE    CHINESE. 

In  the  more  densely  inhabited  districts  of  the  coun- 
try, however,  the  forests  have  disappeared,  and 
timber  is  consequent!}^  very  scarce  and  costly,  com- 
mon firewood  selling  for  two  cents  a  pound  in  some 
parts  of  the  empire.  I  do  not  remember,  during 
my  residence  in  China,  to  have  ever  paid  less  for 
the  pine  wood  used  for  cooking.  Originally  the 
country  was  well  wooded.  We  find  there  to-day, 
especially  in  the  mountains,  the  oak  in  all  its  vari- 
eties, the  black  walnut,  camphor  tree,  cedar,  cy- 
press, sandalwood,  ebon}-,  willow,  chestnut,  per- 
simmon, hickory,  hazelnut,  mango,  pineapple,  or- 
ange, pear,  peach,  plum,  apricot.  Other  trees  and 
fruits  common  in  the  same  latitudes  all  over  the 
world  are  indigenous  in  China.  The  mulberry  is 
extensively  cultivated  in  the  silk-growing  districts, 
the  leaves  being  used  as  food  for  the  silk  worms. 
^  The  bamboo  is  so  universal,  and  used  for  so 
many  purposes,  that  it  might  with  propriety  be 
called  the  national  plant.  It  is  cultivated  about 
villages  and  hamlets  for  its  beauty  and  as  a  shade 
tree.  The  tender  shoots  are  used  for  food  by 
the  natives,  and  in  taste  so  much  resemble  the 
young  Indian  corn  of  the  West  that  foreigners  re- 
gard them  a  delicacy,  and  in  the  season  have  them 
on  the  table  as  we  do  the  "roasting  ear."  The 
old  roots  are  used  as  material  for  ornaments,  and 
arc  often  exquisitely  carved  into  many  beautiful 
shapes.  The  stalks  of  the  smaller  species  are  used 
for  canes,  umbrella  handles,  spears,  and  many 
other  purposes.     The  larger  kind  is  used  in  build- 


GEOGRAPHY   OF    CHINA. 


33 


ing  houses,  making  fences,  chairs,  tables,  and 
for  a  variety  of  purposes  too  numerous  to  men- 
tion here.  It  is  a  beautiful  growth,  resembling  in 
stem  and  foliage  the  larger  species  of  cane  that 
grows  on  our  river  banks,  but  much  larger,  attain- 
ing a  height  in  some  places  of  from  fifty  to  seventy- 
five  feet,  and  a  diameter  of  four  to  six  inches. 
The  bamboo  is  in  China  what  the  palm  tree  is  in 
India,  a  universal  convenience. 

There  are  many  features  of  the  physical  ge- 
ography of  China  which  remind  an  American  of 
his  own  native  land.  The  two  countries  occupy 
nearly  the  same  relative  position  on  the  map  of  the 
northern  hemisphere.  The  coast  lines,  the  moan- 
tain  ranges,  and  the  great  rivers  that  flow  through 
the  land  bear  a  general  resemblance  which  the 
careful  observer  will  not  fail  to  notice.  The  gen- 
eral average  of  temperature  is  said  to  be  a  little 
lower  in  China  than  in  America.  The  climate  is 
therefore  pretty  much  the  same  in  both  countries. 

China  is  rich  in  minerals — iron,  copper,  gold, 
silver,  and  all  other  mineral  products  common 
to  our  country  and  Europe.  There  are  immense 
coal  fields,  but  imperfectly  developed.  In  this,  as 
in  other  things,  the  Chinese  are  without  a  knowl- 
edge of  practical  science,  and  therefore  without 
the  means  of  developing  fully  the  rich  treasures 
locked  up  in  the  vaults  of  nature.  They  deal 
only  with  the  surface  of  things,  and  leave  un- 
touched the  vast  wealth  that  lies  beneath, 
3 


CHAPTER  III. 
The  Population  of  China. 

THE  population  of  China  is  estimated  by  for- 
eigners anywhere  from  three  hundred  and 
fifty  milhon  to  four  hundred  and  twenty  million. 
Recent  statistics  show  that  the  larger  number  is 
probably  the  correct  one,  or  at  least  nearest  the 
truth.  Whatever  the  exact  figures  may  be,  it  is 
safe  to  say  that  one-third  of  the  human  race  live 
in  the  dominions  of  the  present  Manchoo  emperor 
of  China. 

-  It  is  difficult,  if  not  impossible,  for  the  human 
mind  to  conceive  of  the  vast  multitude  of  men, 
women,  and  children  who  live  in  China  to-day. 
They  are  more  than  the  combined  populations  of 
Europe,  Africa,  and  the  entire  continent  of  Amer- 
ica! Dr.  Culbertson,  in  his  little  book  on  China, 
indulges  his  fancy  in  an  attempt  to  array  the  mil- 
lions of  China  in  a  procession,  which  in  its  grand 
march  passes  before  the  imagination  of  the  reader. 
He  says :  *'  Suppose  this  mighty  multitude  to  march 
in  procession  before  you.  Place  them  in  single  file, 
six  feet  apart,  and  let  them  march  at  the  rate  of 
thirty  miles  a  da}^  stopping  to  rest  on  the  Sab- 
bath. Day  after  day  you  watch  the  moving  col- 
umn, and  day  after  day  the  long  march  continues. 
The  head  of  the  column  pushes  on  toward  the 
(34) 


THE   POPULATION   OF   CHINA.  35 

setting  sun.  Now  bridge  the  Pacific;  bridge  the 
Atlantic.  And  now  the  Pacific  is  crossed,  but  still 
the  long  procession  moves  on,  stretching  away 
over  high  mountains  and  sunny  plains  and  broad 
rivers,  through  China  and  India  and  the  Euro- 
pean kingdoms,  and  on  again  over  the  stormy 
bosom  of  the  Atlantic.  But  the  circuit  of  the 
earth  itself  affords  not  standing  room.  The  end- 
less column  must  double  upon  itself,  and  double 
again  and  again,  and  shall  girdle  the  earth  eighteen 
times  before  the  great  reservoir  which  supplies 
these  marvelous  multitudes  is  exhausted.  Weeks 
and  months  and  years  roll  away,  and  still  they  come 
— men,  women,  and  children.  Since  the  march 
began  the  little  boy  has  become  a  man,  and  yet  on 
and  on  they  come  in  unfailing  numbers.  Not  un- 
til the  end  of  forty-one  years  will  the  last  one  of 
that  long  procession  have  passed." 

Some  confusion  in  estimating  the  population  of 
China  has  arisen  from  the  fact  that  the  whole  em- 
pire is  included  in  the  estimate  by  one  writer,  and 
only  the  Eighteen  Provinces  by  another.  If  we 
include  all  the  people  living  under  the  present 
emperor  of  China,  the  immense  population  does 
not  seem  so  incredible,  though  still  largely  beyond 
that  of  any  other  nation,  ancient  or  modern.  If  we 
include  in  our  estimate  only  the  Eighteen  Prov- 
inces, the  number  is,  of  course,  less;  but  the 
bulk  of  the  population  of  the  whole  empire  live  in 
China  Proper,  and  are  Chinese.  Some  writers 
have  questioned  the  larger  estimates  of  the  popu- 


36  HISTORY   OF   THE   CHINESE. 

lation  of  China  because,  they  say,  so  many  mil- 
lions could  not  find  room  to  stand  on  the  limited 
area,  and  certainly  could  not  obtain  subsistence. 
The  fact  remains,  however,  that  these  millions  do 
find  standing  room  and  enough  to  eat.  China 
could  double  her  population  and  still  have  room 
and  food  enough.  Her  territory  is  vast,  and 
the  productions  of  the  soil  almost  unlimited.  Be- 
sides, she  has  an  inexhaustible  supply  of  fish  in 
her  rivers,  lakes,  and  canals,  with  an  extensive  sea- 
coast,  giving  her  access  to  the  boundless  treasures 
of  the  ocean.  China  is  rich  enough  in  material 
resources  to  take  care  of  her  immense  population, 
and  to  maintain  an  extensive  export  trade  with 
other  nations. 

The  stranger  who  visits  China  is  impressed  by 
the  large  number  of  populous  cities  thickly  scat- 
tered over  the  land,  and  by  the  numerous  villages 
that  surround  these  cities.  Take,  for  example, 
the  district  in  which  the  city  of  Shanghai  is  situ- 
ated. It  contains  no  less  than  thirty  large  cities 
and  towns  within  a  territory  not  larger  than  some 
counties  in  Virginia — a  territory  twenty-seven  miles 
long  and  twent3^-six  miles  broad,  with  a  popula- 
tion of  several  million.  The  city  of  Soochow, 
some  eighty  miles  from  Shanghai,  has  a  popula- 
tion of  two  million,  while  the  surrounding  country 
is  covered  with  cities,  towns,  villages,  and  hamlets. 
About  twenty-five  miles  from  Shanghai  is  a  city  of 
probably  five  hundred  thousand  inhabitants,  and 
not  far  from  it  several  cities  of  one  hundred  thou- 


THE   POPULATION   OF   CHINA  37 

sand  people.  So  it  is  all  over  the  more  densely 
populated  parts  of  China.  In  the  Eighteen  Prov- 
inces there  are  one  thousand  seven  hundred  and 
twenty  districts,  with  a  thousand  cities,  ranging 
in  population  from  one  hundred  thousand  to  three 
hundred  thousand,  and  one  three  million.  Peking, 
the  capital,  has  three  million ;  Hang-Chow  and  Can- 
ton, more  than  one  million  each.  The  great  city  of 
Woo-Chang,  with  its  two  neighboring  cities,  has 
four  or  five  million. 

The  Chinese  swarm  everywhere :  in  cities,  towns, 
villages,  and  hamlets;  in  all  the  open  places  of 
the  country;  on  all  the  highways  and  byways; 
on  the  land,  on  the  water,  on  mountains,  and 
in  the  valleys.  *'  They  are  always  near  you;  they 
are  on  your  right  hand  and  on  your  left  hand, 
and  in  whatever  direction  you  look  they  are  al- 
ways in  sight."  They  are  an  industrious  peo- 
ple, always  busy,  always  moving.  Even  the  beg- 
gars pursue  their  calling  with  a  persistent  busi- 
ness air.  On  every  hand  the  scenes  of  a  busy  life 
meet  your  eye.  If  you  would  escape  from  the 
noise  and  babble  of  the  multitude,  you  must  retire 
to  the  solitude  of  the  mountains.  Everywhere 
around  you,  in  the  more  populous  places,  are  the 
abodes  of  the  living  and  the  tombs  of  the  dead. 

The  cities  of  the  dead  occupy  much  space,  and 
often  intrude  upon  the  abodes  of  the  living.  The 
poor  cannot  always  afford  to  bury  their  dead,  and 
therefore  keep  them  in  their  houses,  or  place  them 
in  some  open    space,  until  they  can  pay  the  ex- 


38  HISTORY  OF   THE   CHINESE. 

penses  of  a  cheap  burial,  or  leave  them  thus  to  de- 
ca}'  in  the  open  air.  Of  course  such  scenes  are 
witnessed  only  about  large  cities,  where  land  is 
very  expensive,  and  where  the  very  poorest  of  the 
people  live  and  die. 

Dr.  Williams  says  in  regard  to  the  credibility  of 
the  larger  estimates  of  the  population  of  China: 
*'The  Chinese  people  are  doubtless  one  of  the 
most  conceited  nations  on  earth,  but  with  all  their 
vanity  they  have  never  bethought  themselves  of 
rating  their  population  twenty-five  or  thirty  per 
cent,  more  than  they  suppose  it  to  be,  for  the 
purpose  of  exalting  themselves  in  the  eyes  of  for- 
eigners or  in  their  own.  Except  in  the  case  of 
the  commissioner  who  informed  Lord  Macartney, 
none  of  the  estimates  were  made  for  or  intended 
to  be  known  by  foreigners.  The  distances  given 
in  miles  between  places  in  Chinese  itineraries  cor- 
respond very  well  with  the  real  distances ;  the  num- 
ber of  districts,  towns,  and  villages  in  the  depart- 
ments and  provinces,  as  stated  in  their  local  and 
general  topographical  works,  agree  with  the  actual 
examination  so  far  as  it  can  be  made.  Why  should 
their  censuses  be  charged  with  fraud  and  gross 
error,  when,  however  much  we  may  doubt  them, 
we  cannot  disprove  them,  and  when  the  weight  of 
evidence  derived  from  actual  observation  rather 
confirms  them  than  otherwise?" 

If  all  who  have  lived  and  died  in  China  were 
enumerated,  figures  would  fail  to  express  the  vast 
sum.     The   necropolis  of   China  greatly   exceeds 


I'HE   POPULATION   OF   CHINA.  ^9 

the  present  population  of  the  world.     And  they 
are  still  increasing,  and  still  dying. 

The  great  problem  which  the  Christian  philan- 
thropist should  contemplate  with  profound  concern 
is  the  moral  and  religious  condition  of  the  millions 
of  China.  We  see  the  long  procession,  which  Dr. 
Culbertson  so  graphically  describes,  on  its  solemn 
march  to  eternity,  going  down  to  the  grave  with- 
out hope.  How  little  relatively  has  been  done  by 
the  Churches  of  Christendom  to  save  them ! 


CHAPTER  IV. 
The  People  of  China. 

THE  original  seat  of  the  Chinese  people  was  in  the 
great  plain  of  northern  China,  in  what  is  now 
known  as  the  Province  of  Chih-li,  not  far  from 
Peking,  the  present  capital  of  the  empire.  How 
they  came  to  be  there  it  is  impossible  to  ascertain. 
Chinese  historians  seem  satisfied  with  the  asser- 
tion that  their  people  have  always  lived  where 
they  are  now,  the  only  place  on  the  face  of  the 
earth  fit  for  the  residence  of  the  highest  order 
of  man.  They  say  "  China  is  the  only  civilized 
country  in  the  world;  all  other  people  are  barba- 
rians," who  have  no  history  worth  recording,  and 
who  live  on  barren  islands  off  the  coast  of  China. 
Of  course  there  are  Chinese  who  know  better,  but 
such  is  the  popular  belief,  founded  on  immemorial 
tradition. 

The  average  Chinese  looks  upon  Europeans  and 
Americans  as  belonging  to  an  inferior  race.  To  him 
there  are,  and  always  have  been,  but  two  classes  of 
men  in  the  world — the  Chinese  and  the  barbarians. 
It  is  a  little  amusing  to  know  that  the  half-naked 
creature  that  performs  the  most  menial  offices  for 
you,  and  would  serve  you  in  any  capacity  for  a  few 
cash,  nevertheless  regards  you  as  his  inferior.  The 
same  arrogance  and  silly  self-conceit  which  have 
led  Chinese  historians  to  ignore  all  people  besides 

(41) 


4^  HISTORY   OF   THE    CHINESE. 

themselves,  or  to  characterize  them  as  barbarians 
unworthy  of  notice,  has  induced  entire  silence  in 

'T^  regard  to  their  own  origin.  The  first  man  that 
ever  lived  was  a  Chinese,  and  from  him  the  race 
has  descended.  Where  he  originated  we  are  not 
informed.  "  He  made  the  sun,  moon,  and  stars, 
and  chiseled  all  things  out  of  the  vast  masses  of 

^"^  granite  floating  in  space.  He  was  assisted  in  his 
stupendous  labors  by  the  dragon,  the  phenix,  and 
the  tortoise."  After  eighteen  thousand  years  of 
toil  ''  the  heavens  rose,  and  the  earth  spread  out 
and  thickened;  and  all  things  being  made,  the 
first  man  died  for  the  benefit  of  his  handiwork." 
After  his  death  his  head  became  mountains,  his 
breath  winds  and  clouds,  and  his  voice  thun- 
der, etc.*  Such  was  the  first  Chinese  man.  How 
grotesque  these  absurd  myths !  How  greatly  in- 
ferior to  the  Greek  fables,  or  Egyptian  symbols! 
How  ^ublime  and  beautiful  the  account  which 
Moses  gives  of  the  creation  of  the  heavens  and 
the  earth,  of  the  first  man,  and  the  beginning  of 
human  history ! 
-V  The  Chinese  are  doubtless  the  descendants  of 
Shem,  the  eldest  son  of  Noah.  It  is  not  unrea- 
sonable to  suppose  that -the  sons  of  Noah,  learn- 
ing from  the'ir  father  that  the  world  was  without 
inhabitants,  and  guided  by  a  divine  impulse,  be- 
gan to  colonize  as  soon  as  they  began  to  form 
families.  The  first  three  centuries  would  be  time 
enough   for   some   of  them    to  reach   the   eastern 

*"  Middle  Kingdom." 


THE   PEOPLE  OF   CHINA. 


43 


coast  of  Asia  and  settle  down  in  the  land  of 
Sinim,  or  China.  They  may  have  passed  from 
Persia  through  central  Asia  and  down  the  Yellow 
River  to  the  Great  Plain.  From  this  locality  they 
spread  south  and  west  as  they  increased  in  num- 
bers until  they  covered  the  plains  of  central  and 
southern  China,  where  they  have  made  their  per- 
manent home.  Thus,  from  the  beginning  of  their  r^ 
national  history,  the  Chinese  have  been  isolated, 
and  left  to  develop  a  unique  character,  uninflu- 
enced by  association  with  other  people.  Out  of 
the  line  of  conquest,  away  from  other  great  na- 
tions, they  have  escaped  the  dreadful  scourge  of 
foreign  wars,  and  being  superior  in  numbers  and 
intelligence  to  the  rude  tribes  on  their  borders, 
have  lived  in  comparative  peace,  and  in  great  na- 
tional prosperity.  Their  peculiarities  as  a  people 
may  be  attributed  to  the  character  of  their  indig- 
enous civilization.  Foreign  influences  have  had  ^' 
little  or  nothing  to  do  with  forming  their  political 
and  social  institutions.  They  have  borrowed 
nothing  from  other  nations;  have  no  models  but 
those  of  their  own  ancestors,  and  have  therefore 
studied  themselves,  imitated  themselves,  and  re- 
peated themselves,  generation  after  generation, 
through  forty  centuries. 

The  physical  characteristics  of  the  Chinese  have 
been  thus  described  by  Dr.  Williams:  "  They  are 
in  person  between  the  agile  Hindoo  and  the  mus- 
cular and  fleshy  European;  their  form  is  well 
built  and  symmetrical.      Their  color  is  a  brunette, 


44  HISTORY  OF   THE   CHINESE. 

or  sickly  white,  rather  approaching  to  a  yellowish 
tint  than  a  florid,  but  this  yellow  has  been  much 
exaggerated;  in  the  south  they  are  swarthy  but 
not  black,  never  becoming  as  dark  as  the  Portu- 
guese. The  hair  of  the  head  is  lank,  black,  and 
coarse.  It  is  always  black  and  defiant.  The  eyes 
are  invariably  black,  and  apparently  oblique.  The 
cheek  bones  are  high,  and  the  outline  of  the  face 
invariably  remarkably  round.  The  nose  is  rather 
small,  much  depressed,  and  nearly  even  with  the 
face  at  the  root,  and  wide  at  the  extremity;  lips 
thicker  than  Europeans;  the  hands  are  small,  and 
the  lower  limbs  better  proportioned  than  among 
any  other  Asiatics.  The  height  is  about  the  same 
as  that  of  Europeans." 

Between  the  provinces  of  Kwang-se  and  Kwei- 
chow  in  central  China  there  are  several  tribes 
called  Meaou-tsze,  or  "  children  of  the  soil,"  who 
have  maintained  their  independence  of  the  gov- 
ernment for  hundreds  of  years,  perhaps  thou- 
sands, for  little  is  known  of  their  history.  They 
are  supposed  to  be  the  aborigines  of  that  part  of 
the  country.  In  many  respects  they  are  unlike 
the  Chinese ;  they  are  really  a  different  race  of 
people,  and  by  many  believed  to  be  older  than  the 
Chinese.  This,  however,  can  hardly  be  true,  for 
all  history  points  to  the  Chinese  as  the  original 
inhabitants  of  central  China.  The  Meaou-tsze  are 
a  strange  race  of  hardy  and  brave  nomads,  liv- 
ing in  a  wild  and  barbarous  state  in  the  midst  of 
Chinese   civilization.      During  the   Taiping  rebel- 


THE  PEOPLE   OF  CHINA. 


45 


lion  they  were  said  to  sympathize  with  the  rebels, 
though  they  took  no  part  in  the  war.  They  hate 
the  present  Manchoo  dynasty. 

There  are  provincial  peculiarities  that  distin- 
guish the  inhabitants  of  one  province  from  another, 
but  they  are  not  sufficiently  marked  to  affect  the 
uniformity  of  the  national  character;  they  are  all 
Chinese  who  live  within  the  Eighteen  Provinces, 
except  perhaps  the  Meaou-tsze,  to  whom  reference 
is  made  in  the  preceding  paragraph;  and  the  fol- 
lowing delineation  of  character  is  therefore  intend- 
ed to  apply  to  all  the  Chinese. 

A  just  estimate  of  Chinese  character,  by  a  for- 
eigner, is  perhaps  an  impossibility:  we  have  not 
the  information  concerning  the  private,  domestic, 
and  social  life  of  all  classes  necessary  to  a  full 
and  fair  judgment.  Official  intercourse  with  them 
discloses  only  their  diplomatic  shrewdness  and  ut- 
ter want  of  principle.  All  is  artificial  and  false. 
To  deceive  and  mislead — to  conceal  their  real  sen- 
timents and  hide  their  ultimate  purpose — seems 
to  be  a  fundamental  rule  of  action  when  dealing 
with  the  representatives  of  foreign  governments. 
Commercial  intercourse  with  them  displays  the 
same  characteristics,  modified  by  the  laws  of 
trade.  As  to  the  domestic  life  of  the  people,  we 
know  comparatively  little.  They  are  shielded  from 
the  vulgar  gaze  of  foreigners  by  doors  that  remain 
barred  and  bolted  against  us,  except  in  the  case 
of  the  very  poor  and  the  few  families  connected 
with  Christian   missionaries.     We  now  and    then 


^ 


46  HISTORY  OF  THE   CHINESE. 

hear  of  a  foreigner  who  has  been  admitted  with- 
in *'the  gates  of  a  home,"  but  not  to  the  inner 
apartments. 

Our  knowledge,  therefore,  of  the  real  charac- 
ter of  the  Chinese  is  imperfect,  not  only  because 
limited  to  mere  superficial  intercourse,  but  be- 
cause what  we  see  is  artificial,  and  much  of  it 
false.  "Things  are  not  what  they  seem" — in 
China.  Such  at  least  was  my  experience  during 
a  residence  of  nine  years  in  their  midst.  I  speak 
of  the  people  as  a  mass,  not  of  the  Christian  con- 
verts, for  they  are  few  in  number  and  not  rep- 
resentatives of  their  heathen  countrymen.  They 
have  abandoned  the  *'old  ways,"  and  adopted  the 
habits  of  a  better  life. 
_\  I  shall  notice  first  the  more  commendable  traits 
of  Chinese  character;  and  secondly,  those  which 
are  characteristic  of  the  worst  side  of  their  nature. 
They  have  been  misrepresented  by  two  classes  of 
writers ;  one  extolling  them  as  excelling  the  rest  of 
the  world  in  all  the  qualities  which  constitute  na- 
tional greatness,  especially  in  the  science  of  good 
government,  in  practical  and  useful  knowledge, 
and  even  in  morality.  We  are  told  that  '•  the  Chi- 
nese have  demonstrated  that  Christianity  is  not 
necessary  to  the  highest  civilization,  for  they  have 
attained  the  most  advanced  culture  without  any 
knowledge  of  our  Scriptures  or  creeds."  Anoth- 
er class  of  writers  denounces  them  as  among  the 
lowest  specimens  of  the  human  race,  hardly  above 
the  beasts  of  the  field.     Both  estimates  are  errone;- 


THE   PEOPLE   OF  CHINA.  47 

ous,  for  the  Chinese  are  not  the  highest  order  of 
civiHzed  men,  nor  are  they  the  lowest  order  of  an- 
imal creation. 

The  permanency  of  Chinese  institutions  certainly 
speaks  well  for  them.  If  they  have  not  solved  the 
great  problem  of  human  government,  they  have 
succeeded  in  preserving  intact  through  thousands 
of  years,  far  beyond  that  of  any  other  nation, 
their  form  of  government  and  their  national  in- 
stitutions. The  successive  irruptions 'of  northern 
barbarians  have  never  destroyed  or  materially 
modified  their  original  civil  constitution.  China 
is  to-day  politically  what  she  was  four  thousand 
years  ago. 

The  Chinese  are  an  industrious,  quiet,  peace- 
loving  people.  They  reverence  age,  and  consider 
themselves  bound  to  absolute  obedience  to  parents. 
Thus  the  young  are  under  the  control  of  the  oldest 
surviving  heads  of  families,  and  the  ignorant  and 
inexperienced  are  guided  by  the  more  mature 
judgment  of  their  elders.  This  habit  of  subordi- 
nation, and  the  consequent  control  of  their  ruder 
passions,  tend  to  render  crimes  of  violence  less 
frequent  than  in  almost  any  other  country.  Un- 
der real  or  supposed  injury,  however,  they  are 
sometimes  revengeful  and  cruel,  and  not  at  all 
scrupulous  as  to  how  they  avenge  themselves. 
They  are  kind  to  the  poor,  and  in  a  measttre  be- 
nevolent. Buddhism  has  exerted  a  gOod  influence 
upon  them  in  this  respect.  There  are  homes  for 
the  aged  and  infirm  who  have  no  living  relatives 


48  HISTORY  OF   THE    CHINESE. 

to  care  for  them,  or  means  to  take  care  of  them- 
selves. I  once  saw  an  asylum  for  homeless  and 
friendless  cats,  founded  by  a  devout  Buddhist  wom- 
an. There  are  foundling  asylums,  free  dispensa- 
ries where  medicine  is  furnished  to  the  poor,  in 
some  of  the  large  cities  of  the  empire.  In  seasons 
of  famine  and  of  general  public  distress,  wealthy 
Chinese  give  liberally  for  the  relief  of  the  suffer- 
ing. Heathenism  has,  however,  nowhere  provid- 
ed asylums  for  the  comfort  of  the  unfortunate; 
and  we  must  therefore  infer  that  the  asylums  in 
China  are  the  fruit  of  Christian  teaching,  perhaps 
of  the  early  Romish  missionaries.  The  Chinese 
are  not  naturally  humane  or  philanthropic. 

They  have  attained  a  good  degree  of  security 
of  life  and  property.  The  various  classes  are 
linked  together  in  a  remarkable  manner  by  the 
diffusion  of  education  and  the  personal  rights  to 
property,  the  equality  of  competition  for  office, 
the  just  reward  which  industry  receives,  a  gen- 
eral distribution  of  food  and  clothing,  and  the 
protection  and  security  of  home  life.  Even  their 
idolatry,  degrading  and  abominable  as  it  is,  is  less 
coarse  and  sensual  than  that  of  most  other  hea- 
then nations.  They  have  never  deified  the  beast- 
ly and  inhuman  vices  which  characterize  some 
pagan  systems  of  religion.  The  public  respect 
shown  to  common  decency  in  dress  and  manner 
is  commendable. 

The  marriage  relation  is  respected  in  China, 
and  though  polygamy  exists  throughout  the  em- 


THE   PEOPLE   OF  CHINA. 


49 


pire,  no  man  can  legally  have  more  than  one  wife. 
The  children  are  trained  to  obedience,  to  respect 
age,  to  good  manners,  and  to  be  industrious. 
They  are  also  taught  to  reverence  the  gods  from 
their  infancy,  and  to  worship  them  at  home  and  in 
the  temples.  In  China,  as  in  other  countries,  the 
women  are  more  religiously  inclined  than  the  men, 
and  the  mothers  are  therefore  the  religious  teach- 
ers of  the  children.  Corrupt  and  debasing  as 
Chinese  heathenism  is,  it  is  better  than  atheism, 
and  many  of  the  lessons  inculcated  are  far  above 
the  practice  of  the  average  devotee. 

The  Chinese  appear  to  the  foreign  observer 
to  be  a  cheerful  and  contented  people,  and  in  a 
measure  they  are.  Their  cheerfulness,  however, 
is  more  seeming  than  real.  They  are  phlegmatic 
in  temperament,  cold  and  dull,  and  therefore  not 
easily  excited.  Besides,  they  are  fatalists,  and  be- 
lieve that  "whatever  is  to  be  will  be  "  in  spite  ot 
all  that  men  may  do.  They  also  believe  that  the 
state  of  things  surrounding  them  as  a  people  is 
the  very  best  that  could  possibly  be ;  hence  their 
intense  conservatism,  which  gives  to  their  con- 
duct and  conversation  the  appearance  of  content- 
ment. They  bear  misfortune  with  apparent  for- 
titude, but  it  is  rather  a  hopeless  apathy  than  a 
cheerful  submission.  It  is  a  silent  acquiescence 
in  the  inevitable.  It  must  be,  then  why  complain 
or  struggle  against  it? 

Other  commendable  qualities  of  the  Chinese 
might  be  mentioned,  but  the  limited  space  as- 
4 


50  HISTORY  OF  THE   CHINESE. 

signed  to  this  subject  forbids  further  remark  at 
present.  They  have  another  side  to  their  char- 
acter, which  must  be  noticed  in  this  connection. 

The  inordinate  self-conceit  of  the  Chinese  may 
not  be  classed  among  their  gross  vices,  but  it  is 
certainly  a  very  offensive  trait  of  their  character. 
They  claim  too  much.  We  may  allow  them  to  be 
a  very  great  people,  but  we  cannot  permit  them  to 
monopolize  all  the  wisdom  and  knowledge  in  the 
world,  and  to  be  the  only  civilized  nation  in  exist- 
ence. We  must  protest  against  the  arrogance  with 
which  they  assert  their  claims  to  superiority.  Their 
supercilious  treatment  of  foreigners  is  unpardona- 
ble. 

Among  the  objectionable  traits  of  Chinese  char- 
acter which  an  Englishman  or  American  observes 
with  special  disapproval  is  their  want  of  truthful- 
ness. They  seem  to  prefer  any  form  of  speech 
that  does  not  require  a  plain,  straightforward  state- 
ment of  the  tnith ;  and  this  is  not  confined  to  their 
intercourse  with  foreigners,  but  is  common  among 
themselves.  This  feature  of  their  character  has 
done  more  to  lower  them  in  the  eyes  of  Christen- 
dom than  perhaps  any  other.  Recent  events  con- 
nected with  the  murder  of  missionaries  in  China, 
and  the  official  investigations  which  followed,  fur- 
•'nish  new  evidence  of  the  utter  mendacity  of  the 
people  and  their  rulers.  They  misrepresented  the 
facts  in  every  instance.  Diplomatic  and  official 
intercourse  with  foreign  nations  has  always  been 
characterized  by  the  same  vice  on  the  part  of  the 


THE   PEOPLE   OF  CHINA.  5 1 

Chinese  government.  Social  and  commercial  life 
is  disfigured  by  this  hateful  sin ;  and  what  seems 
to  us  strange,  they  feel  no  shame  when  detected 
in  a  barefaced  falsehood. 

The  moral  teachings  of  Confucius  have  done 
much,  doubtless,  to  regulate  and  restrain  the 
coarse  and  savage  nature  of  the  Chinaman,  but 
his  system  provides  no  radical  remed}^  for  sin.  It 
may  give  an  outside  varnish  to  character,  but  can- 
not change  the  heart.  Christianity  alone  has  pow- 
er to  thoroughly  purify  the  fountain  of  life  so  that 
the  stream  may  be  pure. 

Thieving  is  common  in  China.  Indeed,  it  is  re- 
duced to  a  science,  and  the  thieves  are  regularly 
organized,  having  their  chiefs  and  subordinate  of- 
ficers, with  rules  and  regulations  for  their  govern- 
ment. They  are  perhaps  the  most  expert  pick- 
pockets in  the  world.  Many  amusing  stories  are 
told  of  their  adroitness.  They  are  severely  pun- 
ished when  brought  before  the  mandarins,  if  they 
happen  not  to  have  ''  a  friend  at  court;"  but  it  is 
said  that  the  police  find  it  to  their  interest  to  ignore 
their  existence.  Lying  and  cheating  are  common 
among  merchants  and  tradesmen.  Every  man  is 
supposed  to  be  competent  to  take  care  of  his  own 
interests. 

There  are  many  other  vices  of  the  Chinese 
which  might  be  enumerated,  but  I  have  said 
enough  perhaps  in  this  connection  to  serve  my 
present  purpose.  They  are  not  the  only  sinners  in 
the  world.    We  can  see  much  evil  without  going  to 


52  HISTORY   OF   THE    CHINESE. 

China.  And  we  should  not  forget  that  the  Chi- 
nese exhibit  many  commendable  qualities.  An- 
other thing  also  we  should  bear  in  mind :  they  are 
heathens,  ignorant  of  the  divine  morality  of  the 
gospel,  and  without  the  inspiration  of  lofty  motives 
or  noble  ideals.  Their  civilization  belongs  to  a 
rude  and  barbarous  age.  Their  historic  models 
were  semi-barbarians,  and  they  have  learned  little 
or  nothing  from  other  nations. 

The  Chinese  present  a  strange  mixture  of  char- 
acter. If  there  is  something  to  approve  in  them, 
there  is  much  to  condemn.  They  have  glaring 
vices,  and  they  have  commendable  virtues.  We 
find  ostentatious  kindness  and  secret  hatred,  civil- 
ity and  rudeness,  partial  invention  and  servile  imi- 
v'tation,  industry  and  waste,  sycophancy  and  inde- 
pendence, strangely  blended.  We  must  not  judge 
them  too  severely,  but  remember  always  who  they 
are — pagans,  Asiatic  pagans,  Mongolian  Asiatic 
pagans.  The  Chinese  who  have  come  to  our 
country  are  not  fair  specimens.  They  belong  to 
the  grade  of  common  laborers  and  small  trades- 
men. 

There  are  provincial  differences  among  the  in- 
habitants of  the  Eighteen  Provinces,  in  language 
and  manners,  which  mark  them  as  distinct  from 
one  another  as  the  Latin  races  of  Europe.  This 
fact  renders  any  general  characterization  of  the 
Chinese  people  exceedingly  difficult.  A  descrip- 
tion of  the  people  of  Canton,  in  southern  China, 
for  instance,  would   require  considerable  modifi- 


THE    PEOPLE  OF   CHINA. 


53 


cation  to  make  it  applicable  or  just  to  the  people 
of  Shanghai,  in  eastern  China;  and  so  of  all  the 
provinces  widely  separated.  I  lived  for  years  in 
daily  contact  with  the  people  of  Shanghai  and 
vicinity,  and  I  studied  them  and  their  institutions, 
their  customs  and  manners,  as  carefully  as  I  could, 
and  have  embodied  the  result  of  my  experience 
in  this  chapter.  My  views  are  doubtless  some- 
what colored  by  the  local  peculiarities  of  the  peo- 
ple among  whom  I  lived,  but  I  have  tried  to  in- 
form myself,  in  regard  to  the  general  character  of 
the  people  as  a  whole,  and  trust  I  have  not  entire- 
ly failed  to  do  them  justice,  imperfect  and  unsatis- 
factory as  this  brief  sketch  necessarily  is.  The 
task  is  a  difficult  one. 


un: 

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AIRING   THE    BIRDS. 


CHAPTER  V. 
The  Language  of  the  Chinese. 

/.  written  language. 

THE  Chinese  language,  written  and  oral,  like 
the  people  who  speak  it,  is  peculiar.  It  stands 
alone  among  the  many  forms  of  human  speech 
which  exist  in  the  world.  Sir  John  Davis  says  of 
it:  *'The  highly  artificial  and  philosophic  struc- 
ture of  this  singular  language  entitles  it  to  the 
attention  of  all  intelligent  persons,  as  a  part  of 
the  history  of  the  human  mind.  But  it  has  other 
powerful  claims  to  notice,  from  being  the  medium 
through  which  at  least  four  hundred  millions  of 
mankind,  occupying  countries  which  exceed  the 
united  extent  of  all  Europe,  communicate  their 
ideas."  The  people  of  China  Proper,  Manchoo- 
ria,  Mongolia,  Turkestan,  Bucharia,  Thibet,  Co- 
chin-China,  Loo-Choo,  Japan,  Corea,  and  the 
inhabitants  of  Farther  India,  all  use  the  Chinese 
written  character  more  or  less.  Some  suppose 
that  five  hundred  millions  of  people  can  be  ap- 
proached through  this  one  medium  of  communi- 
cation. The  onl}^  characters  which  approach  it 
in  this  respect  are  the  Arabic  numerals,  com- 
mon to  all  Europe.  This  advantage,  which  per- 
tains only  to  the  Arabic  numerals,  belongs  to  the 
whole  Chinese  written  language.  The  words  are 
monosyllabic,   and   the   characters   symbolic,   nei- 

(55) 


56  HISTORY  OF   THE   CHINESE. 

ther  having  changed  materially  for  many  centu- 
ries. In  fact,  the  written  language  has  no  history 
since  the  death  of  Confucius.  The  generations 
since  his  day  have  strictly  followed  his  exam- 
ple, and  thus  become  a  nation  of  servile  imitators. 
Forsaking  the  dictates  of  their  genius,  or  the  teach- 
ings of  reason,  they  have  degraded  themselves  to 
the  condition  of  mere  copyists,  regarding  the  sages 
of  antiquity  as  the  schoolmen  of  the  West  did  the 
Bible  and  its  scholiasts,  as  not  only  true,  but  as 
containing  all  truth,  so  that  an3^thing  not  taught  by 
them  was  rejected  as  false  and  useless.  The  text 
of  the  ancient  classics  has  always  been  regarded 
by  the  Chinese  with  as  much  superstitious  jealousy 
as  the  Jews  affect  for  the  sacred  language  of  their 
law.  Some  palpable  typographical  errors  have 
been  carefully  perpetuated  because  found  in  the 
original  copies. 

Another  circumstance  has  operated  to  prevent 
changes  in  the  written  language  of  China:  it  has 
no  affinity  with  any  other  known  tongue,  and  from 
its  peculiar  structure  is  incapable  of  incorporating 
or  naturalizing  foreign  words.  Having  no  facili- 
ties for  the  study  of  any  foreign  literature,  Chi- 
nese scholars  have  been  shut  up  to  the  study  of 
themselves  only.  The  student  has  had  but  one 
model,  and  this  is  the  standard  by  which  his  pro- 
ficiency in  all  literary  work  is  tested.  Close  imita- 
tion of  the  ancients,  therefore,  has  always  been  a 
condition  of  literary  or  scholastic  success  in  Chi- 
na.    The    intellect   of  the   nation   has   been    thus 


THE   LANGUAGE  OP   THE   CHINESE.  57 

cramped  and  distorted  by  this  foolish  system  of 
repression.  It  has  deprived  their  hterature  of 
all  originality,  and  consequently  of  all  intellectual 
vigor. 

The  foregoing  observations  apply  strictly  only 
to  the  classical  language  and  literature  in  China, 
for  the  biographies,  novels,  state  papers,  religious 
tracts,  etc.,  exhibit  a  considerable  variety  of  style. 
Many  are  written  with  a  colloquial  freedom  very 
unlike  the  square,  stiff  style  of  the  classics;  but  all 
works  that  claim  any  literary  merit  conform  more 
or  less  to  the  fixed  iron  standard.  Business  men, 
who  as  a  rule  make  little  pretension  to  scholar- 
ship, have  adopted  a  style  of  writing  suited  to  the 
nature  of  their  occupation.  Many  of  them  can 
keep  books,  and  conduct  a  business  correspond- 
ence, who  cannot  read  intelligibly  a  page  of  the 
ancient  classics.  Letter-writing  has  not  been  cul- 
tivated beyond  a  brief  formal  communication 
practiced  by  school  teachers  with  their  pupils, 
and  the  commercial  correspondence  of  business 
men. 

Chinese  writers,  unable  to  trace  the  history  of 
their  written  character,  have  adopted  the  shorter 
method  of  referring  all  to  supernatural  agency. 
They  say  when  the  first  characters  were  invented 
**  the  heavens,  the  earth,  and  the  gods  were  greatly 
agitated.  The  inhabitants  of  hades  wept  at  night, 
and  the  heavens  rained  down  ripe  grain."  When 
the  first  symbols  of  a  written  language  were  em- 
ployed nobody  knows.      '*The    primitive  charac- 


58  HISTORY  OF   THE    CHINESE. 

ters  of  the  Chinese  language  are  derived  from  the 
natural  or  artificial  objects  of  which  they  were  at 
first  the  rude  outline.  Most  of  the  original  forms 
are  preserved  in  the  treatises  of  native  philologists, 
where  the  changes  they  have  undergone  are  shown. 
The  number  of  objects  chosen  at  first  was  not 
large;  among  them  were  the  symbols  for  the  sun, 
moon,  hills,  objects  in  nature,  animals,  etc."  These 
original  pictures  were  doubtless  very  rude,  but 
they  served  to  recall  the  objects  they  were  intended 
to  represent,  and  thus  formed  the  foundation  of 
a  pictorial  language  which  was  gradually  devel- 
oped into  a  written  character. 

The  written  characters  have  been  arranged  by 
Chinese  philologists  into  six  classes,  correspond- 
ing to  our  black  letter,  the  Roman,  the  Italic,  the 
written,  and  the  running  forms.  The  Chinese 
running  hand  might  very  easily  be  taken  for  an 
alphabetic  character.  It  would  be  interesting  to 
illustrate  these  remarks  by  examples  if  we  had  the 
necessary  type;  but  as  these  cannot  be  procured, 
it  wdll  perhaps  be  as  well  to  leave  this  part  of  the 
subject  undeveloped.     See  cut  on  opposite  page. 

The  mode  of  printing  first  adopted  by  the  Chi- 
nese has  not  been  materially  changed.  The  first 
step  in  the  process  is  to  write  the  characters  on 
thin  paper,  ruled  with  lines  to  separate  the  col- 
umns and  the  division  of  the  pages,  two  pages  al- 
ways being  cut  upon  one  block,  and  a  heavy  dou- 
ble line  surrounding  them.  The  title  of  the  book, 
chapter,  and  paging  are  in  a  column  between  the 


THE    LANGUAGE   OF   THE    CHINESE. 


59 


pages,  and  when  the  leaf  is  folded  through  this 
column  the  characters  appear  on  the  edges  and 
partly  on  both  pages.     This  renders  it  easy  to  re- 


m 

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If) 


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Q 


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It 

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(?) 


THE   SIX   STYLES   OF  CHINESE  CHARACTERS. 

fer  to  the  chapters  and  pages.  Marginal  notes  are 
placed  on  the  top  of  the  page ;  comments  occupy 
the  upper  part,  separated  from  the  text  by  a  heavy 


6o 


HISTORY  OF  THE   CHINESE. 


line.  Sometimes  two  works  are  printed  together, 
one  running  through  the  volume  on  the  upper  half 
of  the  leaves,  and  the  other  on  the  lower  half,  the 
two  divided  by  a  line. 

When  the  leaf  is  fully  written  out,  just  as  it  is  to 
appear  in  the  book,  it  is  turned  over  and  pasted  on 
a  block  of  wood  face  downward  to  invert  the  page. 
The  block  is  usually  made  of  plum  or  apple  tree, 
about  half  an  inch  thick,  and  planed  smooth  on 
both  sides.  The  paper  w^hen  dried  is  carefully 
rubbed  off  of  the  block  with  the  finger  moistened 
with  water  or  saliva.  The  impression  of  the  char- 
acters remains  on  the  block  as  distinctly  as  on  the 
written  sheet  of  paper.  ''The  cutter,"  as  he  is 
called,  with  a  small  sharp  chisel  removes  the  wood 
around  the  characters,  leaving  them  in  relief.  The 
block  then  looks  like  a  stereotype  plate,  and  is 
ready  for  the  printer,  who  lays  it  on  a  pile  of  soft 
paper  supported  by  a  bench  or  stool,  and  ''  inks" 
it  with  a  small  brush  made  of  the  fibrous  bark  of 
the  palm.  He  then  places  a  sheet  of  "printing 
paper"  on  the  block,  and  another  sheet  on  that, 
and  wdth  one  or  two  sweeps  of  a  soft  brush  makes 
a  complete  impression  of  the  characters  on  the 
block.  The  sheets  w^hen  printed  are  placed  in 
the  hands  of  the  binder,  who  folds  and  stitches 
them,  and  the  work  is  done.  Chinese  books  are 
of  all  sizes,  from  quartos  twelve  or  fourteen  inches 
square  down  to  32mos.  The  price  varies,  accord- 
ing to  the  size  and  character  of  the  book,  from  one 
cent  to  one  dollar  a  volume.     The  government  ex- 


THE   LANGUAGE   OF   THE   CHINESE.  6l 

ercises  no  censorship  over  the  press  other  than 
a  prohibition  to  write  about  the  present  dynasty. 
Authors  and  pubHshers  are  not  protected  by  any 
form  of  copyright. 

Books  are  hawked  about  the  streets  as  news- 
papers are  with  us;  circulating  hbraries  are  car- 
ried from  house  to  house  upon  movable  stands, 
and  booksellers'  shops  are  numerous  in  all  the 
large  cities  and  towns.  Tracts  on  various  sub- 
jects, especially  on  moral  and  religious  topics, 
are  sold,  or  distributed  gratuitously.  The  Bud- 
dhists have  been,  in  many  parts  of  the  country, 
very  active  in  tract  distribution  since  missiona- 
ries began  their  labors  among  their  people.  Pla- 
cards, posters,  "dodgers,"  and  all  sorts  of  adver- 
tisements, are  spread  on  walls,  pasted  on  boards, 
or  scattered  over  the  face  of  the  country.  They 
are  of  all  sizes  and  designs,  some  in  bright  colors, 
some  large,  some  small,  some  illustrated.  The 
Chinese  have  a  sense  of  the  ludicrous,  and  lam- 
poons, pasquinades,  and  caricatures  are  common; 
nor  is  anyone  below  the  emperor  spared.  Some  of 
these  caricatures  of  foreigners  are  very  amusing. 

As  to  the  structure  of  the  Chinese  language  I 
shall  say  but  little.  A  few  words,  however,  in 
regard  to  the  grammar  may  interest  my  youthful 
readers.  Remusat,  in  his  great  work,  gives  a  brief 
summary  of  the  principles  of  Chinese  grammar. 
He  says:  "In  every  Chinese  sentence,  in  which 
anything  is  understood,  the  elements  of  which  it 
is  composed  are  arranged  in  the  following  order; 


62  HISTORY   OF   THE    CHINESE. 

The  subject,  the  verb,  the  complement  direct,  and 
the  complement  indirect.  Modifying  expressions 
precede  those  to  which  they  belong:  thus,  the  ad- 
jective is  placed  before  the  subject,  or  comple- 
ment, the  substantive  governed  before  the  verb 
that  governs  it;  the  adverb  before  the  verb;  the 
preposition  incidental,  circumstantial,  or  hypo- 
thetical before  the  principal  proposition,  to  which 
it  attaches  itself  by  a  conjunction,  expressed  or 
understood.  The  relative  position  of  words  and 
phrases  thus  determined  supplies  the  place  often 
of  every  other  mark  intended  to  denote  their  mu- 
tual dependence,  their  character,  whether  adjec- 
tive or  adverbial,  positive,  conditional,  or  circum- 
stantial. If  the  subject  be  understood,  it  is  because 
it  is  a  personal  pronoun,  or  that  it  is  expressed 
above,  and  that  the  same  substantive  that  is  omit- 
ted is  found  in  the  preceding  sentence,  and  in  the 
same  quality  of  subject,  and  not  in  any  other.  If 
the  verb  be  wanting,  it  is  because  it  is  the  substan- 
tive verb,  or  some  other  easily  supplied,  or  one 
which  has  already  found  place  in  the  preceding 
sentences,  with  a  subject  or  complement  not  the 
same." 

In  the  absence  of  all  inflection,  the  relation  ot 
words  to  each  other  in  a  sentence  can  be  fixed 
only  by  their  collocation.  The  verb,  for  instance, 
must  always  precede  its  object  and  follow  its  sub- 
ject. The  plural  number  is  indicated  by  an  affix, 
or  by  repeating  the  noun;  but  both  are  unneces- 
sary when  the  number  is  prefixed — as,  three  men. 


THE    LANGUAGE    OF   THE    CHINESE.  63 

The  genitive  or  possessive  case  is  generally  de- 
noted by  the  sign  *'  tsz  "  succeeding  the  noun  like 
our  s.  The  comparison  of  adjectives  is  marked 
by  affixes.  The  tenses  of  verbs  are  indicated  by 
auxiliaries,  etc. 

//.    SPOKEN  L  iNG  UA  GE. 

Under  this  head  little  can  be  said,  unless  we  ex- 
amine the  local  peculiarities  of  the  many  dialects 
into  which  the  colloquial  language  of  China  is  di- 
vided. This  would  have  little  interest  for  the  com- 
mon reader. 

It  is  difficult  to  say  how  many  dialects  there  are 
in  the  Eighteen  Provinces.  First,  because  it  is 
not  easy  to  distinguish  the  peculiarities  of  pronun- 
ciation of  one  dialect  from  another;  that  is,  it  is 
difficult  to  say  whether  what  you  hear  in  one  prov- 
ince is  merely  a  variation  in  the  pronunciation  of  a 
familiar  word,  or  another  word  altogether.  It  is, 
secondly,  difficult  to  say  how  many  dialects  there 
are,  because  in  remote  mountain  districts,  and 
other  obscure  localities,  the  people  are  in  a  semi- 
barbarous  state,  and  neither  they  nor  their  lan- 
guage well  known.  Some  native  authorities  sup- 
pose there  are  sixty  different  dialects,  others  say 
thirty-six,  and  some  only  twenty. 

Added  to  these  causes,  and  perhaps  the  most 
radical  influence  in  dialectical  variations,  is  the 
fact  that  China  originally  consisted  of  several  in- 
dependent tribes,  or  nations,  all  of  one  common 
stock,  but  as  different  in  many  of  their  local  cus- 
toms and  manners  as  if  they  were  politically  inde- 


64  HISTORY   OF  THE   CHINESE. 

pendent  sovereign  states.  This  has  tended  to  pre- 
serve and  increase  the  differences  in  the  provincial 
dialects.  Again,  some  are  more  and  some  less 
cultivated,  as  there  were  educated  men  in  some 
localities  and  not  in  others.  Among  the  more  in- 
telligent inhabitants  of  cities  the  language  has  ap- 
proached more  nearly  the  court  dialect,  while  in 
the  rural  districts  it  has  suffered  the  deteriorating 
effects  of  ignorance,  modified,  as  all  languages 
are,  by  the  habits  and  occupations  of  the  people. 
The  written  language  never  having  been  colloquial, 
the  dialects  have  as  a  consequence  been  neglected 
by  the  educated  classes. 

The  dialects  of  China,  like  the  written  language, 
are  monosyllabic,  and  limited  in  most  instances 
to  a  few  hundred  words,  but  by  a  system  of  tones 
may  be  and  are  multiplied  to  an  almost  indefinite 
extent,  furnishing  a  colloquial  medium  of  commu- 
nication sufficient  for  all  ordinary  purposes.  The 
Chinese,  especially  the  lower  classes,  are  fond  of 
gossip,  and  while  away  many  an  hour  in  hearing  and 
telling  stories.  Ghost  stories  have  a  peculiar  fasci- 
nation for  the  ignorant,  who  revel  in  the  weird  and 
improbable.  A  sense  of  humor  is  also  common 
among  all  classes  of  Chinese,  and  the  grotesque 
and  absurd  are  used  sometimes  with  great  skill  to 
embellish  an  otherwise  prosy  narrative.  This  fond- 
ness for  story-telling  has  had  its  influence  upon  the 
language  of  the  common  people. 

As  a  sample  of  colloquial  Chinese  the  following 
translation  of  the  Apostles'  Creed,  in  the  Shanghai 


THE   LANGUAGE   OF  THE   CHINESE.  65 

local  dialect,  is  here  given,  furnished  me  by  Mrs. 
J.  W.  Lambuth: 

Sing  Kyung, 

Ngo  siang  toh  jer  ieh  ko  zung,  jang  jang  nungker  ko  ya., 
sier  sz  Sau  zung  koong  Ten  lau  De. 

Ngo  siang  sing  e-ko-toh  y a.ngne-tsz  yasoo  ke-fok,  ngoo  ne  ko 
7'su. 

Ngo  siang  sing  Mo-le-a  wajtsz  Sitn  Ling  ko  nungker  lau  yang 
yasoo  lay  ko. 

Ngoo  siang  sing  jasoo  la  Pay-la-too  tsoo  qway  ko  sz-jer  ser 
tsz  naw,  ding  la  seh  sz-ha-long,  se  tsz  lau  tsong;  la  te  san  njdh 
long,  E  tang  se-wjung  tong-tsoong  weh  tsay  lav  ko ;  Ngoo  siang 
sing  yasoo  song  tsz  Ten  lau  zu  la  jang  jung  wung  ker  ko  17?, 
sier  sz  Tung^  ko  yer  ban  ban,  her  ser  yau  tang  e  qway  tsay  lay, 
lau  sung  mung  weh-la,  lau  se-la-ko  nyung. 

Ngoo  siang  sing  Sung  Ling,  Sung-koong  -way,  Sung  doo  ko 
seang  toong,  lau  tswer  nyih  ko  nyau-so. 

Ngoo  siang  sing  myoh-sung  ko  weh  tsay  lay,  Ian  yoong 
yoong  yer  yer  weh  la.  A  Mung. 

5 


(66) 


^  OF    IHK         ^J 

UNIVERSITY 


CHAPTER  VI. 
The  Literature  of  the  Chinese. 

CHINESE  literature  is  divided  into  four  great 
sections:  first,  the  sacred  or  classical  books; 
second,  history  and  biography ;  third,  works  on  sci- 
ence and  art;  fourth,  light  literature,  novels,  plays, 
romances,  and  poetry.  Some  idea  of  the  extent  of 
this  literature  may  be  formed  from  the  imperial 
catalogue,  which  contains  the  titles  of  twelve  thou- 
sand works,  with  tables  of  contents.  They  have 
twenty-four  complete  histories  of  the  empire,  an- 
terior to  the  present  Manchoo  d3masty,  which 
began  to  reign  (in  1644)  two  hundred  and  fifty 
years  since.  Material  for  the  history  of  this  dy- 
nasty is  being  collected  to  be  used  at  some  future 
time. 

The  department  devoted  to  art  and  science  con- 
tains a  variety  of  works  highly  esteemed  by  the 
learned  natives,  but  of  little  intrinsic  value.  Trea- 
tises on  morals,  etiquette  ;  familiar  dialogues  by  their 
great  sage,  Confucius;  books  on  the  military  art, 
on  agriculture,  etc.,  are  to  be  found  in  every  gen- 
tleman's library,  and  on  many  subjects  discussed 
they  display  sound,  practical  views — mixed,  it  is 
true,  with  much  that  is  absurd.  The  Chinese  are 
a  reading  people,  and  the  respect  they  show  to 
men  who  have  excelled  in  literary  work  speaks  well 

(67) 


68  HISTORY   OF   THE   CHINESE. 

for  the  popular  taste.  No  man  (theoretically)  who 
is  not  a  scholar  can  hold  an}^  office  in  the  empire 
above  that  of  a  policeman. 

Chinese  literature  has  been  greatly  enriched  by 
Protestant  and  Romish  missionaries.  The  Bible 
has  been  translated  into  the  language  of  Confu- 
cius, and  parts  of  it  into  the  local  dialects,  espe- 
cially in  southern  and  eastern  China.  Many  reli- 
gious tracts,  treatises  on  astronomy,  geography, 
and  mathematics,  have  also  been  published  in  the 
language.  The  labors  of  Christian  missionaries  in 
heathen  lands  will  one  day  be  appreciated  by  the 
world,  not  only  because  they  have  delivered  na- 
tions and  tribes  of  men  from  the  horrors  of  social 
and  domestic  barbarism  and  brought  them  into  the 
family  of  civilized  Christian  nations,  but  because 
they  have  added  more  than  an}^  other  class  of  men 
to  the  general  knowledge  of  mankind.  They  have 
been  the  pioneers  of  civilization  in  almost  every 
land  under  heaven.  They  have  explored  the  wilds 
of  Asiatic  and  African  jungles,  at  the  peril  of  their 
lives,  in  search  of  lost  and  unknown  tribes,  that 
they  might  teach  them  the  way  of  life.  They  have 
been  the  first  to  bring  to  the  knowledge  of  the 
Christian  world  the  rich  treasures  of  undeveloped 
mines  of  wealth.  What  does  Africa  not  owe  the 
immortal  Livingstone?  What  does  the  world  not 
owe  him?  What  does  China  not  owe  Morrison, 
Milne,  Medhurst,  and  the  many  others,  great  and 
good  men  and  women,  who  have  given  their  lives 
to  redeem   her   millions  from   heathen   darkness? 


THE   LITERATURE   OF   THE   CHINESE.  69 

They  labored  not  for  wealth  or  fame,  but  that  they 
might  carry  the  glad  tidings  of  the  gospel  to  dying 
men.  The  Master  will  not  forget  them  in  the  day 
when  he  makes  up  his  jewels. 

THE  CHINESE  CLASSICS. 

The  limits  assigned  to  this  volume  will  not  per- 
mit even  a  brief  sketch  of  the  Chinese  system  of 
education.  I  have  therefore  chosen  to  place  un- 
der the  head  of  '*  The  Chinese  Classics"  such 
facts  and  observations  as  I  suppose  will  illustrate 
the  methods  of  literary  training  which  have  been 
pursued  for  centuries  in  China.  Education  is  not 
esteemed  in  that  country  for  its  own  sake  so  much 
as  for  the  distinction  which  it  confers,  and  the  polit- 
ical advantages  and  opportunities  which  it  affords. 
No  man  can  hold  any  high  office  who  is  not  a  clas- 
sical scholar;  and  as  office  is  the  goal  of  every 
man's  ambition  whose  social  position  allows  him 
to  aspire  to  any  place  of  honor  among  his  fel- 
low-men, education,  at  least  in  name,  is  eagerly 
sought.  It  is  therefore  interesting  to  know  what 
Chinese  education  means — what  it  is.  The  one 
essential  condition,  fixed  by  law,  is  that  the  stu- 
dent shall  pursue  a  classical  and  historical  course 
of  study,  and  must  pass  an  examination  before  the 
board  of  examiners.  If  successful,  his  name  is 
placed  on  the  bulletin  board  in  the  magistrate's 
office,  and  he  is  recognized  as  entitled  to  a  place 
among  candidates  for  literary  honors.  There 
are  four  literary  degrees.  The  candidate  is  ex- 
amined for  each  degree,   and  may  fail  to  obtain 


70  HISTORY   OF   THE   CHINESE. 

any  one  or  all.  Some  men  attend  the  annual  ex- 
aminations for  the  first  degree  until  they  are  sev- 
enty-five years  old. 

Much  fraud  and  corruption  is  said  to  exist  in 
the  examinations,  and  in  the  distribution  of  hon- 
ors by  examining  boards.  In  one  year  more  than 
twenty  thousand  forged  diplomas  were  sold. 

The  Chinese  have  private  schools,  common 
schools,  high  schools,  academies,  colleges,  and 
universities.  What  proportion  of  the  people  can 
read  is  a  difficult  question  to  answer.  Many 
more  in  the  cities  can  read  than  in  the  country. 
Some  can  call  over  the  names  of  characters  who 
have  no  idea  what  the  characters  mean.  Thus^ 
one  can  read  what  he  does  not  understand,  but 
others  hearing  him  may  understand  perfectly 
what  he  is  reading.  Tradesmen,  mechanics,  and 
country  gentlemen  endeavor  to  give  their  sons 
an  education  that  will  fit  them  for  business, 
and  enable  them  to  mix  pleasantly  with  gen- 
eral society.  Such  an  education  does  not,  how- 
ever, entitle  a  man  to  be  called  a  scholar,  or  to 
claim  any  of  the  privileges  awarded  to  literary 
men. 

The  classical  or  sacred  works  consist  of  nine, 
or  what  the  Chinese  call  the  "  Four  Books,"  and 
\/the  "  Five  Canonical  Works."  In  the  course  of  a 
regular  education  tlie  Four  Books  are  first  stud- 
ied and  committed  to  memory,  and  afterwards 
the  others.  The  texts  of  these  books,  without 
notes,    are    comprised    within    a    small    compass. 


THE   LITERATURE   OF   THE    CHINESE.  7I 

The  numerous  commentaries,  however,  which  have 
been  added  to  the  text  swell  the  whole  to  a  for- 
midable bulk.  The  cheapness  with  which  Chinese 
books  can  be  produced  brings  them  within  reach 
of  everyone  who  can  read. 

1.  The  first  of  the  Four  Books,  the  Ta-shoo, 
shows  that  all  government  must  originate  in  self- 
government,  for  if  a  man  cannot  govern  himself 
he  cannot  govern  others.  Personal  virtue,  ac- 
cording to  the  teachings  of  Chinese  philoso- 
phy, forms  the  foundation  of  all  good  character, 
and  without  it  no  man  is  fit  to  be  a  ruler,  what- 
ever his  genius  or  learning  may  be.  Morality  is 
thus  made  the  chief  element  in  a  sound  statesman 
or  politician.      (See  Chapter  VII.) 

2.  The  second  of  the  Four  Books  is  called  the 
''Infallible  Medium,"  and  inculcates  the  wisdom  of 
moderation  in  all  things.  Whatever  misfortunes 
a  man  may  suffer,  he  should  always  be  *'equal 
and  moderate;"  never  haughty  in  a  high  station, 
nor  base  in  an  humble  one. 

3.  The  third  book  of  the  series  is  the  record 
of  the  conversations  and  sayings  of  Confucius, 
reported  by  his  disciples;  a  sort  of  Bos  well's 
biography  of  the  sage.  It  is  very  interesting,  and 
consequently  exceedingly  popular  among  Chinese 
scholars. 

4.  The  fourth  book  is  the  work  of  Mencius,  a 
celebrated  sage,  who  lived  about  one  hundred 
years  after  Confucius.  This  book  exceeds  in  size 
all  the  other  three,  and  is   devoted  to  the  great 


72  HISTORY   OF   THE   CHINESE. 

theme  of  Confucius — benevolent  and  just  govern- 
ment. 

5.  Confucius  was  either  the  author  or  compiler 
of  the  Five  Canonical  Books.  The  common  name 
for  these  books  is  king.  The  first  is  called  the 
"  Book  of  Sacred  Songs,"  a  collection  of  about 
three  hundred  short  poems. 

6.  The  second  of  the  series  is  an  imperfect  and 
obscure  book,  which  the  Chinese  do  not  claim  to 
understand  fully. 

7.  The  third  of  this  series  is  the  "  Book  of 
Rites,"  and  is  considered  as  ''the  foundation 
of  the  present  state  of  Chinese  manners,  and 
one  of  the  causes  of  their  uniform  unchange- 
ableness." 

8.  The  next  in  the  series  is  a  history  of  his  own 
times,  and  of  those  which  immediately  preceded 
them,  by  Confucius.  It  is  supposed  to  be  the 
only  original  work  of  the  great  sage.  His  design 
appears  to  have  been  to  warn  the  rulers  of  the 
country  of  the  dangers  which  threatened  the  sta- 
bility of  the  government. 

9.  The  last  is  a  mystical  book,  which  some 
consider  a  very  ancient  theory  of  creation,  and 
of  the  changes  which  are  constantly  occurring  in 
nature. 

The  foregoing  imperfect  sketch  of  the  books 
known  as  the  Chinese  classics  may  serve  to  give 
the  reader  some  idea  of  their  character,  and  there- 
fore of  the  mental  food  upon  which  the  Chinese 
have  been  feeding  for  ages.     There  is  much  good 


THE   LITERATURE   OF   THE   CHINESE.  73 

advice,  much  practical  wisdom,  taught  in  these  an- 
cient books,  but  there  is  no  reference  to  an  Unseen 
Power  to  whom  all  men  are  accountable  for  their 
actions;  no  reference  to  a  future  state  of  rewards 
and  punishments.  All  is  of  "  the  earth,  earthy," 
limited  to  time  and  to  the  affairs  of  this  life. 

SPECIMENS  OF  CHINESE  POETRT. 

The  earliest  literature  of  the  Chinese  were  the 
songs  and  ballads,  collected  by  Confucius  into  a 
single  volume  known  as  the  '*  Book  of  Odes." 
These  odes  date  back  to  a  very  early  period  in 
Chinese  history.  Confucius  had  a  collection  of 
three  thousand,  from  which  he  selected  and  edited 
three  hundred  and  eleven,  arranged  under  four 
heads:  (i)  *' National  Airs,"  (2)  the  **Lesser 
Eulogies,"  (3)  the  *' Greater  Eulogies,"  and  (4) 
the  **  Song  of  Homage."  To  this  collection 
he  gave  the  title  of  Shoo-King^  or  *'  Book  of 
Odes." 

Through  most  of  these  odes  there  breathes  a 
calm  and  patriarchal  spirit  of  simplicity.  There 
are  few  sounds  of  war,  little  tumult  of  the  camp, 
but,  on  the  contrary,  a  spirit  of  peaceful  repose, 
of  family  love,  and  of  religious  feeling.  We  have 
brought  before  the  mind's  eye  the  lowly  cottage, 
where  dwells  a  family  united  by  the  bonds  of 
affection  and  duty.  Their  food  is  the  produce  of 
the  soil  and  the  spoils  of  the  chase.  The  highest 
ambition  of  the  men  is  to  excel  as  archers  and  char- 
ioteers, and  their  religious  worship  is  the  same  as 
that,  untainted  by  Buddhism  or  any  other  form  of 


74  HISTORY  OF  THE   CHINESE. 

philosophical  teaching,  now  practiced  at  the  im- 
perial temples  of  heaven  and  earth,  by  the  emperor 
only  as  high  priest. 

The  following  selections  are  taken  from  the 
**  Book  of  Odes."  Who  translated  them  I  do  not 
know;  nor  do  I  know  how  true  the  translation  is 
to  the  original.  The  Chinese  commentators  tell 
us  that  the  following  ode  is  intended  to  depict  a 
domestic  scene,  in  which  an  industrious  wife  im- 
presses on  her  indolent  husband  the  necessity  of 
early  rising,  and  exhorts  him  to  make  virtuous  and 
respectable  acquaintances: 

"Get  up,  husband,  here's  the  day!" 
"  Not  jet,  wife,  the  dawn's  still  gray." 
*'  Get  up,  sir,  and  on  the  right 
See  the  morning  star  shines  bright. 
Shake  off  slumber,  and  prepare 
Ducks  and  geese  to  shoot  and  snare. 

"  All  jour  darts  and  line  maj  kill 
I  will  dress  for  jou  with  skill. 
Thus  a  blithesome  hour  we'll  pass, 
Brightened  bj  a  cheerful  glass; 
While  jour  lute  its  aid  imparts 
To  gratif  J  and  soothe  our  hearts. 

"  On  all  whom  jou  wish  to  know 
I'll  girdle  ornaments  bestow; 
^  And  girdle  ornaments  I'll  send 

To  anj  one  who  calls  jou  friend; 
With  him  whose  love  for  jou's  abiding 
Mj  girdle  ornaments  dividing." ' 

—Booh  of  Odes,  Ode  8. 

Another    specimen    is    taken    from    a    poet    of 
the  Wai   dynasty,   A.D.    620.     The   title  of    this 


THE   LITERATURE   OF  THE   CHINESE.  75 

poem  is,  "  The  Lament  of  a  Soldier  on  a  Cam- 
paign:" 

On  the  hillj  way  blows  the  morning  breeze, 

The  autumn  shrubs  are  veiled  in  mist  and  rain. 

The  whole  citj  escorts  us  far  on  our  way,  providing  us 
With  rations  for  a  thousand  li. 

Their  very  worst  have  those  Fates  done.     Ah  me! 

How  can  I  be  saved  ?    There  is  naught  more  bitter  than  an 
early  death.     Do  not  the  gods  desire  to  gain  perpetual  youth.? 

As  sorrow  and  happiness,  so  are  fortune  and  misfortune 
intermingled.  Heaven  and  earth  are  the  molds  in  which  we 
are  formed.  And  in  them  is  there  nothing  which  does  not 
bear  significance? 

Far  into  the  future  looks  the  sage,  early  striving  to  avert 
calamity.  But  who  can  examine  his  own  heart,  scrutinize  it 
by  the  light  of  heaven,  regulate  it  for  his  present  life,  and  pre- 
serve it  for  the  old  age  which  is  to  come.'' 

Longer  grows  the  distance  from  what  I  have  left  behind 
me:  my  trouble  is  greater  than  I  can  bear. 

This  may  be  poetry,  but  it  looks  and  sounds 
very  much  like  wretched  prose.  The  translator 
has  not,  perhaps,  done  the  original  full  justice. 
The  Chinese  language  is  not  well  adapted  to  poetic 
expression. 

One  of  the  most  ancient  pieces  in  the  '*  Book  of 
Odes,"  the  date  of  which  may  reach  three  thou- 
sand years,  has  reference  to  a  rich  and  powerful 
suitor,  who  carries  off  the  bride  who  had  already 
been  engaged  to  an  humble  rival.  The  allusion  is  to 
some  robber  bird,  which,  like  the  cuckoo,  deprives 
weaker  ones  of  their  homes;  and  the  translation  of 
this  antique  specimen  may  serve  to  show  the  simi- 
larity that  pervades  the  tone  of  human  sentiment 
in  the  most  distant  ages  and  countries: 


76  HISTORY   OF   THE   CHINESE. 

The  nest  jon  winged  artist  builds 

The  robber  bird  shall  bear  away: 
So  yields  her  hopes  th'  affianced  maid, 

Some  wealthy  lord's  reluctant  prey. 

The  fluttering  bird  prepares  a  home 
In  which  the  spoiler  soon  shall  dwell: 

Forth  goes  the  weeping  bride,  constrained, 
A  hundred  cars  the  triumph  swell. 

Mourn  for  the  tiny  architect, 

A  stronger  bird  hath  ta'en  its  nest; 

Mourn  for  the  hapless,  stolen  bride, 

How  vain  the  pomp  to  soothe  her  breast  ! 

CHrNESE  APHORISMS. 

What  cannot  be  told  had  better  not  be  done. 

The  torment  of  envy  is  Hke  a  grain  of  sand  in 
the  eye. 

For  old  age  and  withered  flowers  there  is  no 
remedy. 

Riches  come  better  after  poverty  than  poverty 
after  riches. 

Great  wealth  comes  by  destiny,  moderate  wealth 
by  industry. 

The  error  of  one  moment  becomes  the  sorrow 
of  a  lifetime. 

A  great  man  never  puts  away  the  simplicity  of 
his  childhood. 

Who  swallows  quick,  can  chew  but  little :  so  it 
is  with  learning. 

Better  be  a  dog  in  time  of  peace  than  a  man  in 
a  season  of  anarchy. 

Borrowed  money  makes  time  short,  working  for 
others  makes  time  long. 


THE   LITERATURE   OF   THE   CHINESE.  77 

You  cannot  take  two  skins  off  of  one  cow. 
There  is  a  limit  to  extortion. 

The  gem  cannot  be  polished  without  friction, 
nor  man  made  perfect  without  affliction. 

The  man  who  aims  at  excellence  will  rise  above 
mediocrity,  but  the  man  who  aims  at  mediocrity 
will  fall  below  his  aim. 

Let  every  man  sweep  the  snow  from  before  his 
own  door,  and  not  trouble  himself  about  the  frost 
on  his  neighbor's  roof. 

A  rash  man  is  fond  of  provoking  trouble,  but 
when  the  trouble  comes  he  is  no  match  for  it;  a 
clever  man  turns  great  troubles  into  little  ones, 
and  little  ones  into  none  at  all. 

The  fish  dwell  in  the  depths  of  the  Waters,  and 
the  eagles  in  the  sides  of  the  heavens:  the  one, 
though  high,  may  be  reached  by  an  arrow;  and 
the  other,  though  deep,  may  be  caught  with  a 
hook.  But  the  heart  of  man,  though  only  at  a 
foot's  distance,  cannot  be  known. 


CHAPTER  VII. 
Government  and  Laws. 

ALTHOUGH  revolution  after  revolution  has 
swept  over  China  during  the  many  centuries 
of  her  national  existence,  and  although  she  has 
changed  her  dynasties  more  than  twenty  times,  and 
internal  convulsions  have  shaken  her  throne  to  its 
foundations,  she  has  never  changed  her  form  of 
government.  Other  nations  and  tribes,  partially 
civilized,  have  been  added  by  conquest  to  her 
national  domain,  yet  all  have  been  blended  politi- 
cally into  one  homogeneous  mass,  and  forced  into 
obedience  under  one  scheme  of  civil  administra- 
tion. In  this,  as  in  many  other  things,  China 
stands  alone  in  her  unique  greatness,  the  wonder 
of  the  world.  The  line  on  the  chart  of  history 
that  marks  her  place  among  the  nations  is  the 
only  line  that  runs  with  unbroken  continuity  en- 
tirely across  the  chart. 

The  Chinese  government  is  modeled  after  the 
natural  constitution  of  the  family,  the  emperor 
being  the  father,  and  the  people  his  children. 
The  obligations  of  patriotism  are  founded  upon 
the  filial  relation,  and  all  the  duties  of  good  citi- 
zenship are  enforced  by  the  same  principle.  One 
of  their  sacred  books  says:  '*  In  our  general  con- 
duct, not  to  be  orderly  is  to  fail  in  filial  duty;  in 
acting  as  a  magistrate,  not  to  be  careful  is  to  fail  in 

(79) 


8o  HISTORY   OF  THE   CHINESE. 

filial  duty;  in  the  intercourse  of  friends,  not  to  be 
sincere  is  to  fail  in  filial  duty;  in  arms,  and  in  war, 
not  to  be  brave  is  to  fail  in  filial  duty."  The  idea 
of  filial  reverence  and  obedience  due  to  parents 
is  applied  to  all  the  senior  members  of  the  family, 
and  the  duty  to  reverence  the  aged  is  enjoined 
upon  the  same  principle.  Old  age  is  honorable, 
reverenced  by  all  classes,  and  recognized  by  the 
government.  When  a  man  in  China  reaches  the 
age  of  eighty  years,  he  is  reported  to  the  emperor, 
and  a  yellow  robe — the  imperial  color — is  bestowed 
upon  him  as  a  mark  of  imperial  respect,  on  the 
presumption  that  he  must  have  lived  a  virtuous  life 
to  have  been  thus  favored  by  heaven. 

As  an  example  of  the  manner  in  which  the  gov- 
ernment sometimes  punishes  a  violation  of  filial 
obligations,  the  following  story  is  related  by  Sir 
John  Davis:  '*A  man  and  his  wife  had  beaten  and 
otherwise  severely  ill-used  the  man's  mother.  This 
being  reported  by  the  viceroy  to  Peking,  it  was 
determined  to  enforce  in  a  signal  manner  the  fun- 
damental principle  of  the  empire.  The  very  place 
where  the  offense  occurred  was  anathematized  and 
made  a  curse.  The  principal  offenders  were  put 
to  death;  the  mother  of  the  wife  was  bambooed, 
branded,  and  exiled  for  her  daughter's  crime;  the 
scholars  of  the  district  for  three  years  were  not 
permitted  to  attend  the  public  examinations,  and 
their  promotion  was  thereby  stopped ;  the  magis- 
trates were  deprived  of  their  office  and  banished. 
The  house  in  which  the  offenders  dwelt  was  dug 


/ 


GOVERNMENT  AND   LAWS.  8 1 

up  from  the  foundations."  An  imperial  decree  or- 
dered that  proclamation  of  the  facts  in  the  case  be 
made  throughout  the  empire,  that  **  if  there  be  any 
rebellious  children  who  oppose,  beat,  or  degrade 
their  parents,  they  shall  be  punished  in  like  man- 
ner." The  local  officers  are  required  to  read  pub- 
licly on  the  first  and  fifteenth  of  the  month  **  the 
sacred  instructions"  addressed  to  the  people,  in 
which  their  duties  are  set  forth  so  that  they  may 
not  be  ignorant  of  what  they  ought  to  do. 

The  Chinese  government,  as  it  now  exists  and 
has  existed  for  thousands  of  years,  is  the  result  of 
an  historical  evolution  of  the  patriarchal  idea  as  set 
forth  in  the  ancient  classics.  The  father  of  the 
principal  family  became  the  chief  of  the  clan  or 
tribe,  and  thus  as  the  tribe  increased  and  families 
branched  off  and  new  tribes  were  formed,  the  head 
of  the  senior  or  parent  tribe  became  the  recognized 
chief  of  all  the  tribes,  and  as  the  tribes  increased 
to  a  nation  the  first  or  principal  chief  became  the 
supreme  ruler,  the  king  or  emperor  of  the  whole 
nation.  This  principle  of  patriarchal  supremacy, 
and  the  corresponding  obligation  of  filial  reverence 
and  obedience,  form  the  basis  of  the  whole  system 
of  Chinese  political  economy.  All  the  machinery 
of  government  has  been  adjusted  to  this  one  su- 
preme idea,  namely,  the  right  of  the  parent  to  gov- 
ern the  child,  and  the  duty  of  the  child  to  render 
implicit  obedience  to  the  parent.  By  this  simple 
and  natural  law  the  millions  of  China  have  been 
governed  for  thousands  of  years. 
6 


v,^^ 


82  HISTORY  OF   THE   CHINESE. 

In  recognition  of  the  exalted  position  the  em- 
peror occupies,  and  the  absolute  power  with  which 
he  is  clothed,  the  people  have  exhausted  the  vo- 
cabulary of  oriental  hyperbole  in  attempts  to  de- 
scribe in  suitable  phrase  the  greatness  and  glory 
of  his  "  celestial  majesty."  They  call  him  *'  The 
August  and  Lofty  One,"  "  Son  of  Heaven," 
**Sire  of  Ten  Thousand  Years,"  etc.  He  only 
has  a  right  to  worship  heaven.  Thus  exalted, 
flattered,  worshiped,  the  fountain  of  all  power, 
rank,  honor,  and  privilege,  we  would  naturally  in- 
fer that  he  was  in  all  things  absolutely  irresponsi- 
ble; but  not  so.  The  people  expect  and  require 
him  to  rule  according  to  the  published  laws  of  the 
land;  and  if  he  does  not,  they  know  how  to  assert 
their  rights  even  against  the  throne.  More  than 
once  the  officers  of  the  government  have  been 
assassinated  when  attempting  to  execute  imperial 
edicts  that  were  oppressive ;  and  no  attempt  was 
made  to  punish  the  actors,  because  the  body  of  the 
people  defended  them.  "  There  exists  among  the 
Chinese  a  strong  democratic  element  which  finds 
expression  and  scope  for  action  in  their  municipal 
regulations.  Every  w^ard  in  China  has  its  elders, 
its  public  hall,  where  the  people  meet  for  the  trans- 
action of  business,  and  its  placards  are  public 
manifestoes,  in  which  the  popular  sentiments  of 
the  people  are  boldly  expressed;  and  both  un- 
popular officers  and  offensive  acts  of  govern- 
ment are  sometimes  criticised  and  denounced 
with  irresistible  logic  and  overwhelming  ridicule  " 


GOVERNMENT  AND   LAWS.  83 

(Mackay).  These  elders  are  chosen  by  the  peo- 
ple, and  their  authority  is  generally  ultimate  in 
adjudicating  any  case  brought  before  them.  The 
government  regards  them  as  the  patriarchs  of  the 
people,  and  holds  them  responsible  for  the  acts  of 
the  ward  in  which  they  reside.  If  a  riot  occurs  in 
the  ward,  the  elders  are  expected  to  have  the  guilty 
parties  arrested  and  handed  over  to  the  govern- 
ment for  punishment.  If  they  neglect  or  refuse  to 
do  so,  they  are  held  to  be  themselves  the  offend- 
ers, and  are  dealt  with  accordingly.  This  makes 
them  careful  to  maintain  good  order  in  their  wards, 
and  aids  very  materially  in  the  administration  of 
the  law  throughout  the  land. 

**  The  general  government  "  of  China,  using  our 
American  terminology,  consists  of  the  emperor, 
the  cabinet  or  privy  council,  the  general  or  public 
council,  and  under  these  the  six  boards. 

1.  The  Board  of  Civil  Office  has  control  of  all 
the  officers  in  the  civil  service,  and  assists  the 
emperor  in  the  administration  of  the  government; 
regulates  the  order  of  rank,  the  bestowment  of 
rewards  and  punishments  upon  faithful  and  un- 
faithful officers. 

2.  The  Board  of  Revenue.  This  board  has 
charge  of  the  census,  and  regulates  the  levying 
of  duties,  taxes,  etc.  ^It  also  has  charge  of  sala- 
ries, and  the  internal  commerce  of  the  empire. 

3.  The  Board  of  Rites  examines  and  directs 
concerning  the  performance  of  the  five  kinds  of 
ritual  observances,  and  makes  proclamation  there- 


84  HISTORY   OF   THE    CHINESE. 

of  to  the  whole  empire.     All  rites  and  ceremonies 
are  under  the  supervision  of  this  board. 

4.  The  Board  of  War.  This  board  has  the  gov- 
ernment and  direction  of  all  the  military  officers, 
military  operations,  military  examinations,  and  all 
that  belongs  to  the  army. 

5.  The  Board  of  Punishments  has  the  govern- 
ment of  all  punishments  throughout  the  empire. 
The  emperor  exercises  clemency  toward  criminals, 
or  enforces  the  law  rigidly,  according  to  the  rec- 
ommendations of  this  board. 

6.  The  Board  of  Works  has  the  oversight  of  all 
public  works  in  the  empire,  and  is  also  charged 
with  the  duty  of  providing  the  funds  necessary  for 
carrying  on  all  public  improvements. 

In  addition  to  the  '*  general  government,"  which 
embraces  the  whole  empire  in  the  scope  of  its 
administration,  there  are  provincial  or  state  gov- 
ernments provided  for  the  Eighteen  Provinces 
into  which  China  Proper  is  divided.  Each  of  the 
provinces  has  its  governor-general,  lieutenant-gov- 
ernor, treasurer,  judge,  literary  chancellor,  and 
commissioners  of  rice  and  salt.  Every  province 
is  divided  into  counties,  townships,  and  wards. 
At  the  head  of  each  township  is  a  magistrate, 
with  his  assistant  constable,  etc.  It  would  not  in- 
terest my  readers,  perhaps,  to  go  farther  into  details 
in  regard  to  the  local  government.  Enough  has 
perhaps  been  said  to  give  some  notion  of  the  gener- 
al structure  of  the  Chinese  system  of  government. 

The  nobility  of  China  include  the  members  of 


GOVERNMENT   AND   LAWS.  85 

the  imperial  house  and  clan,  of  which  there  are 
twelve  orders.  These  orders,  as  a  body,  are  des- 
titute of  power,  land,  wealth,  office,  or  influence. 
They  inherit  the  empty  titles,  which  are  not  prac- 
tically worth  as  much  as  the  old  clothes  of  their 
ancestors. 

The  civil  officers  of  the  empire  are  chosen  by 
the  emperor  from  the  Hterary  class  alone,  usually 
from  those  who  have  obtained  the  three  degrees  of 
bachelor  of  arts,  master  of  arts,  and  doctor  of 
laws.  The  very  highest  civil  officers  are  taken 
from  the  class  of  scholars  who  have  received  the 
fourth  or  highest  degree  of  hterary  honors.  This 
secures  the  best  talent  in  the  empire  to  ffil  the  gov- 
ernment offices,  and  constitutes  the  only  real  aris- 
tocracy in  China. 

LA  WS  OF  CHINA. 

During  my  residence  in  China  I  studied  as 
carefully  and  as  thoroughly  as  I  could  the  gov- 
ernment, the  religion,  the  domestic  and  social 
life  of  the  people,  their  customs,  superstitions, 
etc.,  but  not  their  laws.  I  visited  occasionally 
their  courts,  heard  cases  tried,  and  in  a  general 
way  picked  up  some  idea  of  Chinese  law,  but  not 
enough  to  enable  me  to  write  intelligently  about  it. 
I  will  therefore  take  the  liberty  of  quoting  and 
condensing  from  Dr.  Williams's  '*  Middle  King- 
dom ' '  so  much  as  will  give  the  reader  a  general 
idea  of  the  character  of  Chinese  laws,  and  the 
manner  of  executing  them. 

The  Chinese  code  is  called  *'The  Statutes  of 


86  HISTORY   OF   THE    CHINESE. 

the  Great  Pure  Dynasty,"  and  contains  all  the 
laws  of  the  empire.  These  laws  are  classified  un- 
der seven  general  heads,  namely:  general,  civil, 
fiscal,  ritual,  military,  criminal,  and  those  relat- 
ing to  public  works. 

1.  T/ie  General  Laws  consist  of  instructions  as 
to  the  principles  which  should  guide  the  officer  in 
the  construction  and  application  of  the  laws. 

2.  The  Civil  Laws,  consisting  of  twenty-eight 
sections,  are  divided  into  two  books,  one  of  which 
refers  to  the  system  of  government,  the  other  to 
the  conduct  of  magistrates. 

3.  The  Fiscal  Laws  contain  rules  for  enroll- 
ing the  people  for  succession  and  inheritance,  for 
regulating  marriages  between  different  classes  of 
society,  for  guarding  granaries,  treasuries,  etc. 

4.  Ritual  Laws.  This  department  contains  in- 
structions concerning  sacrifices,  worship  of  ances- 
tors, etc. 

5.  Military  Laws.  These  laws  provide  for  the 
protection  of  the  imperial  palace,  for  the  govern- 
ment of  the  army,  the  defense  of  the  coast,  the 
management  of  the  imperial  cattle,  etc. 

6.  Crifninal  Laws.  This  division  contains  one 
hundred  and  seventy  sections,  and  is  the  most  im- 
portant part  of  the  whole  code.  It  relates  to  rob- 
bery, treason,  homicide,  murder,  quarreling  and 
fighting,  abusive  language,  disobedience  to  parents, 
bribery  and  corruption,  forgery,  etc. — a  miscella- 
neous list  of  offenses  which  fill  pages  of  the  statute 
books. 


GOVERNMENT  AND   LAWS.  87 

7.  The  seventh  section  contains  laws  regard- 
ing the  weaving  of  interdicted  patterns,  repairing 
dikes,  construction  of  government  buildings,  etc. 

Dr.  Williams  regards  the  Chinese  code  of  laws 
as  upon  the  whole  humane,  just,  and  reasonable, 
but  he  admits  that  the  execution  of  the  criminal 
laws  is  often  cruel  and  barbarous  in  the  extreme. 
The  tortures  sometimes  inflicted  upon  prisoners 
by  coarse  and  brutal  underHngs,  in  order  to  extort 
money,  or  to  gratify  a  fiendish  love  of  cruelty,  sur- 
pass anything  reported  of  ordinary  savage  inven- 
tion. We  will  have  occasion  to  refer  to  this  subject 
again,  and  shall  not  add  further  details  at  present. 


In  addition  to  what  has  been  said  in  the  forego- 
ing pages  concerning  the  government  and  laws  of 
China,  a  few  general  observations  upon  the  ad- 
ministration of  the  government  and  the  execution 
of  the  laws  may  not  be  irrelevant  in  this  place. 

In  order  to  appreciate,  even  in  the  least  de- 
gree, the  immense  difficulty  of  holding  together  in 
any  sort  of  harmony  the  four  hundred  millions 
of  human  beings  under  the  scepter  of  the  present 
emperor  of  China,  we  must  consider  the  miscella- 
neous character  of  these  millions;  that  they  are 
not  all  Chinese,  but  the  inhabitants  of  Manchoo- 
ria,  Mongolia,  Turkestan,  and  Thibet.  These  are 
brought  under  the  general  administration  of  the 
one  government  with  the  inhabitants  of  the  Eight- 
een Provinces  of  China  Proper.  How  has  this 
been  done?     Let  those  answer  who  can.     China 

f     ^  OF    THK         ^FV 

f  UNIVERSITY  I 


88  HISTORY   OF  THE   CHINESE. 

is  the  only  nation  in  the  history  of  the  world  that 
has  accomplished  such  a  miracle  of  government 
for  any  length  of  time,  not  to  say  for  thousands 
of  years ! 

Not  only  is  the  population  of  the  empire  of 
China  composed  of  different  nationalities,  speak- 
ing different  languages,  with  peculiar  customs  and 
manners,  religions,  traditions,  and  race  antipathies, 
but  the  mixed  mass  is  still  further  complicated 
by  arbitrary  class  distinctions  recognized  by  law 
and  social  custom.  The  following  classifications 
are  fixed  by  law:  *' First,  natives  and  aliens;  the 
latter  class  includes  the  unsubdued  mountaineers 
and  aboriginal  tribes  still  living  in  the  empire, 
races  of  boat  people  on  the  coast,  and  all  foreign- 
ers living  in  the  country,  each  of  whom  is  subject 
to  particular  laws.  Second,  conquerors  and  con- 
quered, having  reference  almost  exclusively  to 
intermarriages  between  Manchoos  and  Chinese. 
Third,  freemen  and  slaves.  Every  native  is  al- 
lowed to  purchase  slaves  and  retain  their  children 
in  servitude;  and  free  persons  sometimes  forfeit 
their  freedom  on  account  of  their  crimes,  or  sell 
themselves  into  bondage.  Fourth,  the  honorable 
and  the  mean  who  cannot  intermarry  without  the 
former  forfeiting  their  privileges;  the  latter  com- 
prise^ besides  aliens  and  slaves,  criminals,  execu- 
tioners, police  runners,  actors,  jugglers,  beggars, 
and  all  other  vagrant  or  vile  persons,  who  are  in 
general  required  to  pursue  for  three  generations 
some   honorable    and   useful   employment   before 


/ 


GOVERNMENT   AND   LAWS.  89 

they  are  eligible  to  enter  literary  examinations."* 
There  are  also  eight  privileged  classes,  but  only 
the  nobility  can  avail  themselves  of  these  privi- 
leges w^ith  any  profit. 

This  great  mass  of  humanity,  thus  diversified  in 
individual  and  national  character,  is  no  better  and 
no  w^orse  than  the  average  man  under  the  same 
grade  of  civilization.  The  Chinese  are  not  more 
easily  governed  than  other  Asiatics.  They  are,  as 
a  people,  seditious,  turbulent,  covetous,  and  ambi- 
tious. There  must  therefore  be  something,  not 
only  in  the  theory  of  government,  but  in  the  policy 
and  method  of  its  administration,  by  which  the 
central  government  at  Peking  can  keep  a  strong 
and  steady  hand  on  every  part  of  the  vast  political 
machine,  so  as  to  direct  all  its  movements.  Our 
knowledge  of  details  in  regard  to  the  practical 
workings  of  the  central  and  provincial  governments 
is  so  imperfect  that  we  cannot  venture  upon  even 
a  probable  explanation  of  the  problem.  We  have 
the  results  in  the  history  of  the  great  Chinese  em- 
pire, but  how  these  results  have  been  attained  we 
do  not  understand. 

Some  facts,  however,  connected  with  the  practi- 
cal administration  of  the  government  may  interest 
the  reader.  We  have  seen  how  the  democratic 
element  is  incorporated  into  the  ward  system  of 
China.  The  deliberations  and  manifestoes  of  the 
ward  meetings  are  recognized  by  the  emperor  as 
a  part  of  the  machinery  of  government.     The  sys- 

*  Williams's  "Middle  Kingdom." 


90  HISTORY  OF  THE   CHINESE. 

tern  of  mutual  responsibility,  which  runs  through 
every  department  of  society,  renders  local  disturb- 
ances of  any  kind,  especially  any  interference  with 
government  officials  in  the  discharge  of  their  duty, 
a  very  serious  matter.  The  locality  where  an  of- 
fense is  committed,  no  matter  of  what  grade,  is 
held  responsible  for  it,  and  the  elders  of  that  par- 
ticular ward  must  arrest  the  offenders  and  hand 
them  over  to  the  government. 

The  law  forbids  any  man  to  hold  office  in  his 
native  province;  besides  preventing  all  intrigue 
when  it  would  most  likely  succeed  (among  his 
own  people),  this  law  sends  the  office-seekers  to 
Peking,  where  they  come  under  the  eye  of  the 
censors,  whose  business  it  is  to  scrutinize  their  fit- 
ness for  office.  Moreover,  no  officer  is  allowed  to 
marry  in  the  territory  under  his  control,  nor  own 
land  in  it,  nor  have  a  son  or  brother  or  near  rela- 
tive holding  office  under  him;  and  he  is  seldom 
continued  in  the  same  station  or  province  more 
than  three  or  four  years.  Local  interests  of  any 
kind  are  supposed  to  be  unfavorable  to  a  faithful 
discharge  of  official  duty.  Theoretically,  nepo- 
tism is  impossible  in  China;  practically,  it  exists 
throughout  the  empire. 

Chinese  officials  are  not  at  all  without  reproach 
in  the  matter  of  personal  and  official  integrity. 
One  of  the  censors  in  his  report  to  the  emperor 
says:  *' Among  the  magistrates  are  many  who, 
without  fear  or  shame,  connive  at  robbery  and 
deceit.     Formerly    horse-stealers    were    wont    to 


/ 


GOVERNMENT  AND   LAWS.  9I 

conceal  themselves  in  some  secret  place,  but  now 
they  openly  bring  their  plunder  to  market  for  sale. 
When  they  perceive  a  person  to  be  weak,  they  are 
in  the  habit  of  stealing  his  property,  and  then  re- 
turning it  to  him  for  money,  while  the  officers,  on 
hearing  it,  treat  it  as  a  trivial  matter,  and  blame  the 
sufferer  for  not  being  more  cautious.  Thieves  are 
apprehended  with  warrants  in  their  possession, 
showing  that  when  they  were  sent  out  to  arrest 
thieves  they  took  advantage  of  the  opportunity  to 
steal  for  themselves." 

While  there  are  corrupt  men  in  office  in  China, 
as  in  other  countries  (some  not  pagan),  there  are 
also  good  men,  men  who  love  justice  and  mercy, 
and  who  deal  uprightly  with  their  fellow-men. 
The  moral  teachings  of  Confucius  are  followed  as 
faithfully  b}^  many  Chinese  officials  as  the  pre- 
cepts of  the  Bible  are  observed  by  officers  of 
Christian  governments.  That  there  is  much  offi- 
cial corruption  in  China,  from  the  imperial  cabinet 
down  to  the  lowest  petty  office,  no  well-informed 
native  or  foreigner  doubts.  Recent  riots  in  Chi- 
na, in  which  several  missionaries  were  murdered, 
were  instigated  by  the  mandarins  for  political  pur- 
poses. The  literati  of  China  are  haters  of  for- 
eigners, and  do  all  they  can  to  keep  alive  the  na- 
tional prejudice  against  them.  They  inflame  the 
minds  of  the  ignorant  masses  by  horrible  stories, 
and  thus  assist  the  officials  in  exciting  riots  and 
murderous  assaults  on  quiet  and  unoffending  mis- 
sionaries.    The  presence  of  missionaries  and  their 


92  HISTORY   OF  THE   CHINESE. 

teachings  are  a  rebuke  to  the  shameful  lives  of  the 
mandarins  and  literati^  and  the  people  are  not  slow 
to  see  that  the  conduct  of  their  rulers  is  a  disgrace 
to  the  position  they  occupy. 

It  is  not  too  much  to  say  that  the  present  gov- 
ernment of  China  is  thoroughly  corrupt.  The 
rulers  are  cruel,  covetous,  and  oppressive.  They 
need  a  higher  civilization.  The  old  forms  remain 
as  they  were,  but  there  is  no  life  in  them,  no  health, 
nothing  but  decay  and  death.  What  Western 
powers  will  do  remains  to  be  seen.*  There  is  no 
question  as  to  what  the  Church  ought  to  do.  Now 
is  a  crisis,  not  only  with  China  politically  and  re- 
ligiously, but  with  the  Churches  of  Protestant  Chris- 
tendom. The  Chinese  need  the  gospel  more  now 
than  ever  before,  if  possible,  and  the  obligation 
of  Christians  to  send  it  to  them  is  correspondingly 
increased.  Western  nations  are  increasing  their 
armaments  in  the  Chinese  seas;  the  Church  should 
increase  its  working  force  in  China. 

*This  was  written  in  November,  1895. 


If- 

ra»»"'"!s. 11^ ^ — ^ 

i 

i 

/ 

!»\r   '■ 

u 

\ 

\ 

-   1 

-^'-n  ■:^^.- 

(93) 


CHAPTER  VIII. 
The  Dynasties  of  China. 

PERHAPS  no  part  of  Chinese  literature  is  so  lit- 
tle interesting  to  the  average  foreigner  as  the 
historical.*  It  is  simply  a  dry  record  of  the  succes- 
sion of  dynasties,  and  the  reigns  of  many  sovereigns 
with  unpronounceable  names.  China  has  had  no 
connection  with  the  rest  of  the  world  until  during 
the  last  few  hundred  years,  and  other  countries 
have  taken  little  more  interest  in  her  affairs  than 
if  she  had  been  located  in  the  moon  instead  of 
being  an  inhabitant  of  our  planet.  We  feel  no 
sympathy  with  the  dull  record  of  the  past  dreary 
centuries  through  which  she  has  lived.  Even  the 
wars  of  China  fail  to  interest  us.  We  are  com- 
paratively indifferent  as  to  her  political  fortunes. 
Perhaps  this  is  an  unconscious  retaliation  for  the 
supercilious  manner  in  which  the  Chinese  have 
treated  other  nations.  I  think  the  sympathies  of 
the  civilized  world  were  with  the  Japanese  in  the 
recent  war  between  the  two  countries. 

A  full,  consecutive  history  of  China  would  be 
an  impossibility.  The  data  for  such  a  work  do  not 
exist.  Man}^  Chinese  writers  have  attempted  what 
they  call   history.     There   is  one   work   of   three 

*A  distinguished  writer  places  Chinese  historians  at  the  bot- 
tom of  the  list  of  writers. 

(94) 


THE   DYNASTIES   OF   CHINA.  95 

hundred  volumes  of  this  character,  but  it  is  after 
all  only  a  prosy  record  of  events,  and  not  a  his- 
tory. There  is  no  logical  order  or  philosophical 
sequence  in  the  bald  details,  nor  any  attempt  to  ex- 
plain events,  or  to  trace  them  to  their  causes.  Sir 
John  Davis  says  of  Chinese  history:  **  There  is 
a  continuous  history  of  China,  from  the  earliest 
ages  down  to  the  end  of  the  Mongolian  Tartar 
dynasty,  called  the  '  Twenty-one  Historians,'  con- 
sisting uf  nearly  three  hundred  volumes  stitched 
with  silk — yet  we  search  in  vain  for  anything  be- 
yond a  barren  chronicle  of  facts  and  dates.  Trains 
of  reasoning  and  lessons  of  political  philosophy 
can  scarcely  be  looked  for  in  a  country  the  theory 
of  whose  government  has  always  been  despotic, 
however  tempered  by  other  circumstances.  '  In- 
stead of  allowing,'  observes  Mr.  Guetzlaff  very  cor- 
rectly, *  that  common  mortals  had  any  part  in  the 
affairs  of  the  world,  they  speak  of  the  emperors 
who  then  reigned.  They  represent  them  as  the 
sources  from  which  the  whole  order  of  things 
emanated,  and  all  others  are  mere  puppets  who 
moved  at  the  pleasure  of  the  autocrat.  This  is 
truly  Chinese ;  the  whole  nation  is  represented  by 
the  emperor,  and  absorbed  in  him.'  " 

Of  course,  with  such  a  theory  to  guide  them,  no 
history  of  the  nation  could  be  written  by  native 
historians,  or  any  reliable  data  furnished  for  future 
use.  The  despot  whom  the  historians  feared,  as 
did  the  people,  would  not  permit  any  record  of 
events  which  did  not  tend  to  magnify  and  exalt 


96  HISTORY   OF  THE   CHINESE. 

him  and  his  administration.  There  could  there- 
fore be  no  true  history  of  rulers  or  people  under 
such  circumstances.  We  are  left  with  the  barren 
annals  of  century  after  century,  recorded  by  tim- 
id and  time-serving  writers,  from  which  to  gather 
the  facts  and  events  of  four  thousand  years  of 
Chinese  history.  Hence  I  have  said  a  full  and 
consecutive  history  of  China  is  an  impossibility. 
The  data  for  such  a  work  do  not  exist. 

I  have  said  thus  much  as  introductory  to  what 
may  appear  to  my  youthful  readers  as  a  very  dry 
and  uninteresting  sketch  of  the  Dynasties  of  Chi- 
na. Such  a  sketch  could  not  be  well  omitted.  If 
it  is  not  easy  reading,  it  may  be  valuable  for  ref- 
erence. 

The  reader  will  remember  that  in  the  first  chap- 
ter, on  the  '*Antiquity  of  China,"  we  decided  that 
the  Emperor  Yu  was  the  first  real  character  in  Chi- 
nese history,  and  that  he  began  to  reign  about 
the  year  B.C.  2204.  Some  writers  place  the  date 
of  his  reign  much  earlier,  even  as  early  as  B.C. 
2800;  but  this  would  carry  him  back  into  the 
mythological  period,  of  which  there  is  no  record. 
I  have  condensed  for  present  use  the  "  summary 
of  Chinese  history  "  as  given  in  Williams's  "  Mid- 
dle Kingdom."     It  is  as  follows: 

I .  The  Hai  Dynasty,  founded  by  Yu  the  Great. 
This  dynasty  existed  for  four  hundred  and  thirty- 
eight  years,  or  from  B.C.  2204  to  B.C.  1766,  un- 
der seventeen  monarchs.  x\mongthe  contempora- 
ry events  of  importance  was  the  call  of  Abraham, 


THE   DYNASTIES    OF    CHINA.  97 

Jacob's  flight  into  Mesopotamia,  and  Joseph's  ele- 
vation in  Egypt;  also  Jacob's  arrival  in  Egypt. 

2.  The  Shang  Dynasty  followed  the  Hai  Dy- 
nasty, and  continued  four  hundred  and  forty-four 
years,  under  twenty-eight  sovereigns,  down  to 
B.C.  1 122.  The  principal  contemporary  events 
were  the  exodus  of  the  Israelites,  B.C.  1648;  their 
settlement  in  Palestine;  Othniel,  Deborah,  Gideon, 
Samson,  and  Samuel  were  judges  in  Israel. 

3.  The  Chan  Dynasty  lasted  eight  hundred  and 
seventy-three  years,  under  thirty-five  monarchs, 
down  to  B.C.  249,  the  longest  of  any  recorded  in 
history.  The  principal  contemporary  events  were 
the  accession  of  Saul  as  king  of  Israel;  taking  of 
Samaria;  David's  reign;  Rehoboam,  taking  of 
Jerusalem;  death  of  Nebuchadnezzar;  accession 
of  Cyrus ;  return  of  the  Jews ;  battle  of  Marathon ; 
accession  of  Alexander;  the  conquest  of  Egypt  by 
Alexander,  etc. 

4.  The  Tsin  Dynasty.     This  dynasty  began  ir^,^ 
B.C.  249,  and  lasted  only  three  years. 

5.  The  After  Tsin  Dynasty,  B.C.  246  to  202. 
This  dynasty  lasted  only  forty-four  years.  In  this 
period  of  oriental  history  all  the  East  was  dis- 
turbed by  wars  and  commotions,  and  in  the  West 
a  similar  state  of  unrest  and  strife  existed. 

6.  The  Han  Dynasty  came  into  power  in  B.C. 
202  and  continued  until  A.D.  221,  a  period  of  four 
hundred  and  twenty-three  years.  It  was  divided 
into  two  dynasties,  called  the  Han  and  the  Eastern 
Han.     During  this  period  of  Chinese  history  the 

7 


go  HISTORY   OF   THE    CHINESE. 

conqiLest  of  the  Western  world  by  the  emperors  of 
Rome  established  that  great  empire  as  "mistress 
of  the  world."  The  great  events  of  this  period 
were  the  advent  of  our  Lord,  his  ministry  and 
death,  with  the  establishment  of  the  Christian 
Church. 

7.  The  After  Han  Dynasty  began  A.D. 
211,  and  continued  forty-four  years  under  two 
princes.  Under  this  dynasty  the  country  was  di- 
vided into  three  principalities.  The  first  comprised 
all  northern  China,  and  was  the  most  powerful  of 
the  three. 

8.  The  Tsin  Dynasty  was  founded  by  an  am- 
bitious general  of  the  house  of  Han.  He  ascended 
the  throne  in  A.D.  265,  but  ruled  only  over  the 
western  half  of  the  country,  and  was  engaged  in 
constant  warfare  with  the  pett}-  states  that  refused 
submission  to  him.  Four  emperors  of  this  house 
ruled  over  China  for  fifty-two  years. 

9.  The  Eastern  Tsin  Dynasty,  successor  to 
the  last  dynasty,  reigned  one  hundred  and  three 
years  under  eleven  princes.  Buddhism  and  the 
doctrines  of  Confucius  were  dominant  in  this  age. 
It  was  said  that  "children  of  concubines,  priests, 
old  women,  and  nurses  administered  the  govern- 
ment." 

10.  The  Sung  Dynasty  was  founded  by  a 
general  who  commanded  the  armies  of  Tsin.  Dis- 
pleased with  the  incapacity  of  his  master,  he  caused 
him  to  be  strangled,  and  placed  his  brother  on  the 
throne,  who  resigned  for  fear  he  should  meet  the 


THE    DYNASTIES    OF    CHINA. 


99 


same  fate.     The  general  then  seated  himself  on 
the  throne  in  A.D.  420. 

11.  The  Tsi  Dynasty  was  founded  by  Kauti, 
but  he  enjoyed  the  imperial  honors  but  four 
years.  He  was  followed  by  four  princes,  who 
reigned  only  a  short  time.  The  dynasty  lasted 
only  twenty-three  years. 

12.  The  Liang  Dynasty.  Woo-ti,  the  first  em- 
peror of  this  dynast}^,  reigned  forty-eight  years. 
He  was  a  great  devotee  of  Buddhism,  and  like 
Charles  V.  retired  to  a  monastery,  but  was  per- 
suaded to  resume  his  crown.  He,  however,  em- 
ployed his  time  in  teaching  the  doctrines  of  Bud- 
dhism to  his  courtiers.  The  dynasty  ended  in 
A.D.  557. 

13.  The  Chin  Dynasty  began  to  reign  in 
A.D.  557.  Three  brothers  reigned  most  of  the 
time  during  this  dynasty.  The  kingdom  of  Wei 
ruled  over  all  northern  China  from  A.D.  386  to 
534,  under  eleven  monarchs.  It  was  finally  sep- 
arated into  Eastern  and  Western  Wei,  and  other 
smaller  states. 

14.  The  Sui  Dynasty.  This  dynasty  was  weak 
and  dissolute.  The  last  ruler  of  the  dynasty  re- 
signed in  favor  of  Li  Yuen,  A.D.  618. 

15.  The  Tang  Dynasty.  This  celebrated  line 
of  rulers  began  their  sway  in  peace,  and  during 
two  hundred  and  eighty-seven  years  governed 
China  wisely.  They  were  probably  the  most  civ- 
ilized and  enlightened  monarchs  of  their  age. 
Europe    was    suffering  under  the  ignorance    and 


lOO  HISTORY   OF   THE    CHINESE. 

degradation  of  the  middle  ages.  Twenty  mon- 
archs  reigned  during  the  two  hundred  and  eighty- 
seven  years  this  dynasty  lasted. 

i6.  After  Liang  Dynasty.  The  last  prince  of 
the  Tang  dynasty  was  forced  to  abdicate,  A.D.  907, 
and  a  struggle  ensued  against  the  usurper  who 
seized  the  throne.  After  a  reign  of  six  years  he 
was  murdered  by  his  brother,  who  reigned  for 
sixteen  years,  and  was  slain  by  a  Turkish  general. 
Thus  ended  the  dynasty,  A.D.  923. 

17-21.  The  Five  Dynasties,  from  907  to  960. 
These  short-lived  houses  are  known  in  Chinese 
records  as  the  '*  Five  Dynasties." 

22.  The  Sung  Dynasty  began  to  reign  in  A.D. 
970,  after  the  turmoil  and  strife  of  the  "  Five  Dy- 
nasties "  w^ere  ended,  and  reigned  until  A.D.  11 27, 
or  one  hundred  and  fifty-seven  years. 

Then  followed  the  Southern  Sung  Dynasty, 
from  A.D.  1127  to  1280,  under  nine  emperors. 
After  this  the  Yuen  Dynasty,  founded  by  the 
great  Mongolian,  Kublai-Khan.  This  dynasty 
lasted  eighty-nine  years,  when  the  Mongols  were 
expelled.  The  Ming  Dynasty  followed,  and  held 
the  reins  of  government  for  two  hundred  and  sev- 
enty-six years.  The  present  dynasty,  known  as 
the  TsiNG  or  Pure  Dynasty,  came  into  power 
A.D.  1644,  and  has  ruled  China  from  that  date 
down  to  the  present  day.  The  rulers  are  Man- 
choo  Tartars.  How  well  they  have  governed 
China  does  not  enter  into  the  design  of  this  book 
to  inquire  in  this  place. 


The  DYNAsTiEs  of  china.  ioi 

I  have  thus  run  rapidly  through  the  long  hst  oi 
dynasties,  which  may  interest  some  of  my  readers. 
It  amounts  to  Httle  more  than  the  poHtical  calendar 
of  the  government.  If  I  had  space,  it  might  be 
more  interesting  to  give  some  account  of  the  mil- 
itary character  and  wars  of  the  Chinese,  but  I 
must  desist. 


(102) 


CHAPTER  IX. 
Religions  of  China. 

THE  STATE  RELIGION. 

ALTHOUGH  no  hierarchy  supported  by  the 
state  has  ever  existed  in  China,  no  body  of 
priests  has  ever  been  able  to  rise  to  power  and 
influence,  or  create  a  caste  Hke  the  Brahmans  of 
India,  yet  there  is  a  state  rehgion  of  very  ancient 
date.  It  does  not  consist  of  doctrines  which  are 
to  be  taught,  learned,  and  believed,  but  of  rites 
and  ceremonies  to  be  observed.  It  is  entirely  a 
bodily  service,  and  its  ritual  is  contained  in  the 
statistics  and  code  of  the  empire.  The  objects  of 
worship  are  chiefly  things,  although  -persons  are 
also  included.  There  are  three  grades  of  sacri- 
fices— the  "  great,"  the  '*  medium,"  and  the  "  in- 
ferior." The  objects  to  which  the  great  sacrifices 
are  offered  are  four:  heaven,  earth,  the  great  tem- 
ple of  ancestors,  and  the  gods  of  the  land  and 
grain.  The  medium  sacrifices  are  offered  to  the 
sun,  the  moon,  the  memos  of  deceased  emperors 
and  kings,  Confucius,  and  the  ancient  patrons  of 
agriculture  and  silk  weaving;  the  gods  of  heaven 
and  earth,  and  the  passing  year.  The  inferior 
sacrifices  are  offered  to  the  ancient  patrons  of  the 
healing  art,  and  the  spirits  of  deceased  philanthro- 
pists, eminent  statesmen,  martyrs  to  virtue;  to 
clouds,    rain,   wind,   and  thunder;    the   five   cele- 

(103) 


I04  HISTORY   OF   THE   CHINESE. 

brated  mountains,  four  seas,  and  four  rivers,  fa- 
mous hills,  great  water  courses,  cannon,  flags,  and 
many  other  things.  The  state  religion  is  said  to 
be  greatly  corrupted  from  its  original  simplicity. 
The  emperor  is  the  high  priest,  and  renders  hom- 
age to  these  objects  of  worship  in  person.  When 
he  worships  heaven  he  wears  blue  robes,  in  allu- 
sion to  the  color  of  the  sky ;  he  wears  yellow  when 
he  worships  the  earth,  red  when  he  worships  the 
sun,  pale  white  for  the  moon,  etc. 

"  The  state  religion  of  China,"  says  Dr.  Wil- 
liams, **is  a  mere  pageant,  and  can  no  more  be 
called  the  rehgion  of  the  Chinese  than  the  teach- 
ings of  Socrates  could  be  termed  the  faith  of  the 
Greeks."  It  is,  however,  connected  with  the  sect 
of  Confucianists,  and  all  its  members  are  men  of 
literary  distinction.  It  might  with  propriety  be 
called  "  the  sect  of  the  learned,"  having  the  writ- 
ings of  Confucius  as  its  sacred  books.  Confucius 
said  little  about  religion,  and  his  followers  imitate 
his  example  in  this  as  in  other  matters  of  opinion. 

There  exists  but  one  temple  in  China  dedicated 
to  the  worship  of  heaven,  and  one  to  the  worship 
of  the  earth — both  of  them  at  Peking;  and  there 
the  great  sacrifices  at  the  solstices  are  annually 
offered  up  by  the  emperor  with  much  imperial 
pomp.  One  of  the  temples  is  situated  east  of  the 
city,  and  the  other  west  of  the  city.  The  whole 
system  of  worship  is  simply  an  imperial  show — a 
materialistic  display  of  gross  idolatry.* 

*See  chapter  on  Chinese  Worship. 


RELIGIONS   OF   CHINA.  I05 

CONFUCIANISM. 

Notwithstanding  Confucianism  is  here  placed 
under  the  general  head  of  "  Religions  of  China,"  it 
is  not,  strictly  speaking,  a  religion  at  all,  but  rather, 
as  Sir  John  Davis  sa3^s,  **a  system  of  philosophy 
in  the  department  of  morals  and  politics;"  yet  it 
is  not  a  system  of  philosophy  merely,  for  it  has  a 
ritual  and  objects  of  worship,  and  is  so  far  a  re- 
ligion. This  makes  it  difficult  to  classify  it.  As 
the  name  Confucianism  has  been  given  to  the 
whole  system,  and  has  been  placed  by  all  writers 
on  the  subject  so  far  as  I  know  under  the  general 
head  of  the  *'  Religions  of  China,"  I  shall  so  des- 
ignate it.  The  other  religions  of  China  are  Bud- 
dhism and  Taoism.  We  may  characterize  the 
three  systems  as  ethical,  metaphysical^  and  mate- 
rialistic, Confucianism  addresses  man's  moral 
nature,  discourses  on  virtue  and  vice,  and  the  duty 
of  obeying  the  dictates  of  conscience.  The  basis 
of  the  whole  system  is  the  duty  of  filial  piety,  hence 
the  worship  of  ancestors,  etc.  Buddhism  is  meta- 
physical. It  appeals  to  the  imagination.  Its  gods 
are  personified  ideas;  it  denies  the  existence  of 
matter,  and  concerns  itself  only  with  ideas.  In 
other  words,  it  is  a  form  of  idealism.  Taoism  is 
materialistic.  It  believes  the  human  soul  to  be  a 
purified  form  of  matter,  and  that  it  may  become 
immortal  only  by  physical  discipline. 

I  shall  not  attempt  to  discuss  these  systems  of 
religion  in  a  philosophical  or  theological  manner, 
but  will  simply  give  a  sketch  of  their  authors  and 
a  brief  outline  of  their  teachings. 


I06  HISTORY  OF  THE   CHINESE. 

The  author  of  the  first  system  was  Koon^-fu-tsz, 
or  as  Latinized  by  the  Jesuits,  Confucius.  He  was 
born  in  the  small  kingdom  of  Loo,  now  a  part  of 
the  Shan-tung  province  in  China,  some  time  about 
B.C.  550.  He  was  therefore  contemporary  with 
Pythagoras,  lived  a  hundred  years  earlier  than 
Socrates,  and  a  hundred  years  later  than  Buddha. 
His  ancestors  for  generations  had  enjoyed  ducal 
honors,  and  his  immediate  family  boasted  some  of 
the  most  illustrious  names  on  the  military  register  of 
their  times.  His  father,  Heigh,  was  distinguished 
as  a  cavalry  officer  of  great  strength  and  courage. 
He  was  also  prime  minister  of  his  native  kingdom. 
It  is  said  that  at  the  siege  of  Pihyang  the  enemy 
succeeded  in  entering  the  city  in  such  numbers 
that  it  became  necessary  for  him  and  his  associ- 
ates to  abandon  it.  As  they  were  passing  through 
the  gate  the  portcullis  fell.  Heigh  seized  the  mas- 
sive structure,  and  by  main  strength  lifted  it  and 
held  it  up  until  the  last  one  of  his  men  had  passed 
out.  Many  other  extraordinary  exhibitions  of  phys- 
ical strength  are  related  of  this  Chinese  Goliath. 
He  is  said  to  have  been  more  than  eight  feet  high. 

Confucius  was,  like  his  father,  a  man  of  great 
physical  strength,  and  of  an  irascible  and  imperious 
temper  in  his  youth;  but  by  self-discipline  he  sub- 
dued the  violence  of  his  passions  and  became  quiet 
and  affable  in  manner,  a  studious  scholar,  and  a 
wise  counselor.  '  But  little  is  known  of  his  mother. 
The  Chinese  do  not  affect  respect  for  female  biog- 
raphy. 


RELIGIONS   OF   CHINA.  I07 

Man}^  absurd  legends  connected  with  the  birth 
of  Confucius  are  recorded  by  grave  historians. 
One  is  that  "  as  his  mother,  a  few  days  before  his 
birth,  passed  through  the  forest,  the  trees  bent 
down  in  homage,  and  the  birds  made  obeisance  to 
her."  "  He  was  born  in  a  cave,  and  a  spring  of 
water  gushed  up  at  the  moment  of  his  birth,  in 
which  he  was  washed,  after  which  the  spring  dried 
up.  Two  dragons  watched  at  the  entrance  of  the 
cave,  one  on  the  right  and  the  other  on  the  left." 

The  Chinese  believe  Confucius  to  have  been 
inspired  by  heaven,  though  not  himself  divine,  and 
therefore  regard  the  appearance  of  miracles  at  his 
birth  not  incredible.  They  say  their  sages  are  not 
gods  nor  related  to  the  gods,  but  a  superior  develop- 
ment of  man,  endowed  by  heaven  with  extraordina- 
ry mental  and  moral  powers  for  the  enlightenment 
of  mankind.  Accustomed  as  we  are  to  the  per- 
spicuity and  harmony  of  truth,  the  incongruities 
and  absurdities  which  superstition  associates  with 
the  supernatural  offend  our  sense  of  propriety. 
Mystery — incomprehensibility — is  the  heathen  idea 
of  the  divine ;  and  as  Confucius  was  a  man  of  de- 
cided human  character,  and  in  no  sense  veiled  in 
mystery,  his  followers  have  deified  him  as  a  man 
and  placed  him  at  the  head  of  their  sages,  and  not 
among  their  gods.  It  is  true  they  worship  him, 
but  so  they  do  the  shades  of  deceased  emperors, 
and  their  own  ancestors,  as  well  as  the  heroes  and 
benefactors  who  have  been  deified  by  imperial  de- 
crees. 


loS  HISTORY   OF   THE   CHINESE. 

The  childhood  of  Confucius  was  passed  as  that 
of  most  boys  of  his  time.  His  father  left  him  an 
orphan  in  his  third  year,  and  with  limited  means, 
so  that  his  early  opportunities  for  acquiring  an 
education  were  not  good.  At  that  day  there  were 
no  public  schools  in  China  where  he  could  obtain 
even  the  rudiments  of  a  primary  education.  He 
was  therefore  left  to  the  resources  of  his  own  genius 
and  industry. 

Confucius  began  very  early  the  study  of  antiq- 
uity. He  soon  discovered  that  the  teaching  of 
the  sages  was  almost  entirely  unknown  among 
the  rude  inhabitants  of  his  native  state,  and  he  set 
himself  the  task  of  teaching  them.  His  superior 
intelligence,  devotion  to  the  sages  of  antiquity,  and 
the  exemplary  character  of  his  life,  inspired  ven- 
eration for  his  person  and  profound  respect  for 
his  teachings.  He  soon  became  conscious  of  his 
mission  as  a  reformer,  and  began  in  good  earnest 
his  life  work,  which  he  never  perhaps  fully  under- 
stood, impelled,  as  he  once  said,  **  to  move  forward 
without  foreseeing  the  end."  He  attributed  the 
impulse  which  urged  him  "to  become  a  public 
teacher  of  rectitude  "  to  the  *'  will  of  heaven.''  In 
his  twenty-seventh  year  he  began  his  public  career 
as  teacher,  and  such  was  the  reputation  which  he 
had  already  acquired  that  his  academy  was  soon 
crowded  with  aspiring  young  men  from  all  parts  of 
the  country.  The  simple  and  suggestive  method 
which  he  employed  as  a  teacher  tested  the  zeal 
and  ability  of  his  pupils,  and  many  came  to  see 


RELIGIONS   OF   CHINA. 


109 


and  hear  who  had  not  the  courage  to  remain.  He 
said  in  regard  to  his  method  as  a  teacher:  ''I  do 
not  open  truth  to  one  who  is  not  eager  to  acquire. 
I  present  one  angle  of  a  subject  to  a  pupil,  and 
if  he  cannot  find  the  other,  I  do  not  repeat  the 
lesson."  His  school  was  evidently  no  place  for 
idlers  or  dullards. 

After  some  years  of  labor  as  a  teacher,  he  was 
made  prime  minister  of  his  native  kingdom  of  Loo, 
a  position  which  his  father  had  once  filled.  Chi- 
nese historians  say  that  ''during  his  administra- 
tion all  useless  ornament  was  abandoned,  strict 
honesty  maintained  by  all  grades  and  classes,  and 
the  palmy  and  pure  days  of  the  sages  realized 
again.  The  women  were  taught  humility  and  sub- 
ordination, the  children  filial  piety,  the  subjects 
reverence  and  obedience  to  their  rulers,  and  the 
rulers  were  enjoined  to  maintain  justice  and  mercy 
toward  all."  These  golden  days,  however,  were 
destined  to  end  abruptly;  and  the  happy  inhabit- 
ants of  Loo,  so  pure,  so  upright,  such  models  of 
virtue,  were  captivated  and  led  astray  by  a  band 
of  singing  women  sent  into  their  midst  by  a  wick- 
ed and  wily  prince  of  a  neighboring  state,  whose 
jealousy  could  not  brook  the  marvelous  prosperity 
of  Loo.  Such  was  the  disgust  and  humiliation  of 
Confucius  at  the  shameful  defection  of  his  people, 
that  he  left  them  and  became  a  stranger  and  wan- 
derer in  other  lands.  He  traveled  from  one  petty 
kingdom  to  another,  pursuing  what  would  now 
be  regarded  as  the  life  of  a  respectable  y^ 


no  HISTORY  OF   THE    CHINESE. 

followed  in  all  his  eccentric  wanderings  by  a  few 
faithful  disciples,  whom  he  taught  under  the 
friendly  shade  of  some  tree  or  by  the  bank  of 
some  stream,  borrowing  from  familiar  objects  in 
nature  the  striking  imagery  which  characterized 
his  style  as  a  teacher.  Many  of  the  lessons  thus 
taught  have  been  preserved,  and  now  form  a  part 
of  his  philosophical  teachings. 

How  far  his  views  of  man  as  a  social  and  sym- 
pathetic being  have  been  affected  by  his  personal 
experience  during  these  years  of  hardship,  disap- 
pointment, and  sorrow,  has  formed  a  subject  of 
grave  and  voluminous  speculation.  Some  of  the 
dogmas  of  his  code  have  been  attributed  to  his 
peculiar  trials  during  his  season  of  exile.  He 
seems  to  have  been  above  any  feelings  of  revenge, 
for  after  some  years  spent  abroad  he  returned  to 
his  native  state,  and  though  he  refused  to  accept 
office,  he  used  his  great  influence  in  support  of 
the  government.  Chastened  and  made  wiser  by 
the  hardships  and  disappointments  of  life,  his 
teachings  assumed  at  this  time  a  broader  and  more 
philosophic  cast,  and  from  this  period  his  genius 
asserted  its  supremacy  over  his  countrymen.  He 
felt  that  neither  princes  nor  people  appreciated 
him,  and  as  he  approached  the  end  of  life  he 
became  melancholy.  The  world  had  treated  him 
badly.  Few  understood  him.  Disappointed  hopes 
filled  his  soul  with  bitterness.  No  wife  nor  child 
stood  by  him  to  minister  the  kindly  offices  of 
affection.     He  offered  no  prayer,  and  he  betrayed 


RELIGIONS    OF   CHINA.  Ill 

no  fears.  Darkness  came  over  him  like  the  shad- 
ows of  night,  and  his  great  soul  went  out  alone  to 
meet  its  Maker. 

The  system  of  Confucius  is  to  be  found  in  the 
nine  books  which  bear  his  name.  An  analysis  of 
these  books  would  occupy  more  space  than  can 
here  be  given.  The  great  work  of  Dr.  Legge, 
**A  Translation  of  the  Chinese  Classics,  with  Crit- 
ical Notes,"  in  seven  volumes,  contains  the  most 
complete  and  reliable  account  of  Confucianism 
that  we  have  in  the  English  language,  and  to  that 
I  would  refer  anyone  wishing  further  information 
on  the  subject. 

In  any  attempt  to  form  a  just  estimate  of  the 
great  Chinese  sage,  and  his  teachings,  the  intel- 
lectual and  moral  condition  of  the  country  in 
which  he  lived  and  labored  must  be  taken  into  the 
count.  Contemporary  with  Pythagoras,  he  belongs 
to  an  age  anterior  to  the  birth  of  modern  civiliza- 
tion, before  Christianity  had  shed  its  light  upon 
the  intellectual  darkness  of  the  world.  China  had 
no  estabhshed  system  of  philosophy,  religion,  or 
politics ;  nothing  beyond  the  traditions  of  antiquity, 
and  these  greatly  obscured  by  oriental  exaggeration. 
There  was  no  literature,  no  schools,  no  colleges, 
nor  any  of  the  appliances  so  common  in  civilized 
countries  for  the  diffusion  of  general  intelligence. 
It  is  true  that  Confucius  professed  only  to  restore 
the  lost  knowledge  of  antiquity,  but  how  could  he 
do  this  when  the  golden  age  from  which  he  claimed 
to  have  gathered  so  much  had  no  history? 


112  HISTORY   OF  THE   CHINESE. 

Confucius  probably  used  the  names  of  the  an- 
cient sages  to  give  dignity  and  authority  to  what 
would  otherwise  have  been  challenged  by  his 
countrymen  as  unlawful  innovations.  China  has 
always  worshiped  the  past,  and  the  appearance  of 
novelty  has  been  the  sign  of  heresy.  As  it  was, 
he  suffered  persecution  from  those  whose  condi- 
tion he  labored  to  improve,  the  common  lot  of 
good  men  in  a  corrupt  age — the  inheritance  of  re- 
formers. His  persecutions  would  have  been  much 
greater  if  he  had  attempted  any  radical  changes 
in  his  own  name.  He  therefore  protected  himself 
and  his  teachings  by  claiming  to  originate  nothing, 
but  simply  to  restore  the  ancient  system  of  China 
— the  lost  wisdom  of  the  sages. 

Most  ancient  Asiatic  systems  of  philosophy  and 
political  economy  were  founded  on  the  prevalent 
religious  notions  of  their  times.  Not  so  with  the 
teachings  of  Confucius.  So  little  has  religion  to 
do  with  his  system  that  by  many  of  his  own  coun- 
trymen, as  well  as  by  some  foreign  writers,  he  is 
regarded  as  an  atheist.  Engaged  all  his  life  in  pol- 
itics, he  seems  to  have  given  no  thought  to  the 
spiritual  nature  of  man  or  his  future  destiny,  but 
to  have  given  all  his  energies  to  the  improvement 
of  human  government.  The  results  of  his  teach- 
ing may  be  seen  in  China  to-day,  both  in  the  pe- 
culiar form  of  civil  government  and  in  the  social 
institutions  of  the  country.  (See  Chapter  VII.  on 
the  Government  of  China.) 

It  will  be  sufficient,  perhaps,  to  give  in  this  con- 


RELIGIONS   OF   CHINA.  II3 

nection  a  brief  summary  of  the  leading  principles 
upon  which  the  system  of  Confucius  is  founded, 
especially  his  views  of  government. 

1.  Government  is  the  regulation  of  human  con- 
duct by  just  and  merciful  laws,  enforced  by  the 
authority  of  the  state ;  rewarding  the  obedient  and 
punishing  the  rebellious. 

2.  The  individual  multiplied  constitutes  the  fam- 
ily; the  family  multiplied  constitutes  the  state. 

3.  He  that  can  govern  himself  can  govern  a  fam- 
ily;  he  that  can  govern  a  family  can  govern  a  state. 
All  good  government  therefore  begins  with  self- 
government. 

4.  In  the  regulation  of  individual  conduct  five 
things  are  requisite:  benevolence,  rectitude,  pro- 
priety, wisdom,  and  truth.  These  are  known  as 
the  *'five  cardinal  virtues,"  the  ''  five  pillars  which 
support  heaven."  These  virtues  cannot  exist 
without  a  motive,  some  all-pervading  influence. 
This  universal  stiff  ort  is  filial  -piety.  '*  Without 
this,"  says  Confucius,  "it  is  useless  to  expect 
fidelity  to  the  prince,  affection  to  brethren,  justice 
to  neighbors,  kindness  to  domestics,  or  constan- 
cy among  friends.  This  feeling,  if  it  rule  in  the 
heart,  will  lead  to  the  performance  of  every  duty, 
the  subjugation  of  every  evil  passion,  and  the  ren- 
ovation of  the  whole  man.  It  is  not  to  be  confined 
to  time  or  place,  but  it  is  to  be  maintained  whether 
the  objects  be  present  or  absent,  living  or  dead." 
Thus  filial  duty  is  made  the  center  and  basis  of 
the  entire  system  of  civil  and  social  government. 


114  HISTORY   OF   THE    CHINESE. 

The  emperor  is  the  "father  of  his  people,"  for 
whom  he  is  supposed  to  feel  a  constant  paternal 
solicitude,  and  over  whom  he  exercises  unlimited 
patriarchal  authority.  He  is,  theoretically,  respon- 
sible only  to  heaven  for  his  conduct. 

Confucius  was  the  author  of  many  moral  maxims 
which  have  had  great  influence  upon  the  character 
and  habits  of  the  Chinese.  He  also  meddled  with  the 
vagaries  of  speculative  philosophy.  All  the  pagan 
nations  of  the  East  have  a  more  or  less  elaborate 
cosmogony  to  which  their  sages  have  devoted  much 
thought  to  little  profit.  The  Chinese  philosophers 
say  that  "before  heaven  and  earth  were  divided 
there  existed  one  universal  chaos.  When  the  two 
energies  of  nature,  male  and  female,  began  to  exert 
their  harmonizing  influence,  the  purer  elements 
ascended  and  formed  the  material  heavens;  the 
grosser  descended  and  formed  the  earth.  From 
these  all  things  sprang  into  being,  and  thus  heaven 
and  earth  are  the  father  and  mother  of  all  things." 
This  sexual  S3^stem  runs  through  the  universe, 
like  that  which  Linnaeus  found  to  exist  in  plants, 
and  forms  the  basis  of  universal  classification. 
They  find  its  type  and  illustration  in  numbers. 
"  One  produced  two,  two  produced  four,  four 
produced  eight,"  and  thus  the  endlessly  diversified 
forms  in  nature  were  produced.  To  such  studies 
Confucius  devoted  the  last  days  of  his  life. 

The  demeanor  and  habits  of  Confucius  have 
been  diligently  recorded  by  his  admirers.  One 
says  "he    was    mild,  yet   firm;   majestic,  though 


RELIGIONS   OF   CHINA.  II 5 

not  harsh;  grave,  yet  agreeable."  He  seems  to 
have  been  fond  of  a  simple  and  retired  life.  ''  The 
virtues  of  country  people,"  he  observes,  *' are 
beautiful:  he  who  in  selecting  a  residence  refuses 
to  dwell  among  them  cannot  be  considered  wise." 
Being  asked  by  a  disciple  to  describe  the  man  of 
superior  virtue,  Confucius  replied:  "  He  has  nei- 
ther sorrow  nor  fear."  The  disciple,  surprised, 
said:  *'  Does  that  alone  constitute  his  character?  " 
The  sage  responded:  *'  If  a  man  searches  within, 
and  finds  nothing  wrong,  he  need  have  neither 
sorrow  nor  fear." 

It  is  not  an  easy  task  to  ascertain  the  place  which 
Confucius  justly  occupies  among  the  great  teachers 
of  mankind.  If  we  look  only  to  the  intellectual 
and  literary  character  of  his  writings,  and  com- 
pare them  with  the  Iliad  of  Homer,  the  Dialogues 
of  Plato,  or  the  reasonings  of  Socrates,  we  must 
assign  him  a  secondary  position.  But  if  we  con- 
sider the  moral  influence  his  teachings  have  ex- 
erted over  so  many  millions  of  minds  for  so  many 
ages,  w^e  must  allow  him  to  rank  with  the  greatest 
intellects  of  the  world.  In  any  attempt  to  form  an 
estimate  of  his  character,  we  must  not  forget  that 
he  was  a  heathen,  and  that  his  opinions  on  the 
subject  of  religion  were  formed  without  any  knowl- 
edge of  revelation,  but  conformed  to  the  crude 
and  absurd  rehgious  systems  of  his  time.  He  said 
nothing  definitely  about  a  future  state  of  existence, 
but  left  his  disciples  to  believe  the  popular  teach- 
ings of  the  priesthood  on  the  subject.     When  ap- 


Il6  HISTORY  OF  THE   CHINESE. 

preaching  death  himself,  he  seems  to  have  felt  no 
great  concern  about  the  future.  He  had  been  en- 
gaged in  politics  all  his  life,  had  given  little  or  no 
thought  to  the  subject  of  religion,  and  died  as  he 
had  lived. 


(117) 


CHAPTER  X. 

Religions  of  China  (Continued). 
buddhism. 

IN  any  discussion  of  Buddhism  it  is  important  to 
remember  that  there  are  many  systems  of  behef 
bearing  this  name.  No  other  faith  has  undergone 
so  many  changes  both  of  doctrine  and  of  rituaHs- 
tic  forms.  Buddhism  is  one  thing  in  China,  and 
quite  another  thing  in  Thibet,  Japan,  Ceylon,  Siam, 
Burmah,  and  India.  It  has  been  greatly  modified 
in  China  by  the  influence  of  Confucianism,  Tao- 
ism, and  ancestral  worship.  The  widely  different 
opinions  which  have  been  expressed  as  to  the 
teachings  of  Buddhism  may  therefore  be  the  result 
of  the  various  forms  which  it  has  assumed.  In 
China  it  has  been  forced  into  coalescence  with 
other  systems  of  belief,  under  the  peculiar  form 
of  toleration  practiced  in  that  country.  The  Chi- 
naman really  has  no  relifjious  belief.  What  seems 
to  be  a  religion  with  him  is  a  ceremonial  or  cult 
used  on  state  occasions,  at  funerals,  and  in  ances- 
tral worship.  He  regards  the  different  systems 
of  religious  belief  prevalent  in  his  country  pretty 
much  as  we  do  insurance  companies.  He  takes 
out  a  policy  in  each,  and  pays  the  premiums,  with 
the  uncertain  feeling  that  it  may  or  may  not  be  a 
good  investment.  If  Christianity  could  come  into 
(118) 


Religions  of  china.  119 

the  business  it  would  largely  increase  the  number 
of  its  nominal  converts.  The  Chinese  are  intense- 
ly mercenary. 

With  this  introductory  explanation,  I  will  give 
as  fair  and  full  a  statement  of  Buddhism,  as  it  exists 
in  China,  as  my  space  and  material  will  permit. 

Buddhism  originated  in  India  about  six  hundred 
years  before  our  era.  It  was  introduced  into  Chi- 
na A.D.  66.  The  Emperor  Ming,  of  the  Han  dy- 
nasty, heard,  in  some  way,  that  a  divine  teacher  of 
great  wisdom  and  marvelous  power  had  appeared 
in  the  west,  and  sent  an  embassy  to  make  inqui- 
ries concerning  him.  The  embassy  proceeded  to 
India,  and  there  met  with  the  Buddhists;  and  con- 
vinced that  Buddha  was  the  divine  teacher  referred 
to,  they  persuaded  a  number  of  Buddhist  priests  to 
accompany  them  to  China.  They  were  received 
with  great  favor  by  the  emperor.  Provision  was 
made  for  their  support,  temples  erected,  and  their 
religion  gladly  received  by  the  people.  Buddhism, 
supplied  a  want  which  the  masses  of  the  people 
had  long  felt :  some  provision  for  the  spiritual  na- 
ture of  man,  and  some  definite  teaching  as  to  a 
future  state  of  rewards  and  punishments.  The  old 
religions  of  China  said  nothing  about  a  future  life. 
Buddhism,  on  the  contrary,  teaches  the  existence 
of  the  soul  after  death,  and  a  state  of  rewards  and 
punishments  in  a  heaven  and  in  a  hell.  Imperfect 
and  unsatisfactory  as  this  teaching  is,  it  is  infinitely 
better  than  the  cold,  heartless  teaching  of  the  Con- 
fucian system,  or  the  coarse  meterialism  of  Tao- 


120  HISTORY  OF  THE   CHlNESE. 

ism.  Buddhism  has  always  been  the  most  popular 
religion  in  China  with  the  common  people,  though 
held  in  comparative  contempt  by  the  government 
and  the  literary  classes. 

The  founder  of  Buddhism  was  a  son  of  the  king 
of  Magadha,  in  Bahar,  India.  Tradition  represents 
him  as  being  in  early  life  grossly  dissipated  and 
immoral,  but  he  reformed  and  devoted  himself  to 
a  life  of  separation  from  the  world,  and  was  there- 
fore accounted  very  holy.  He  is  regarded  by  his 
worshipers  as  one  of  the  manifestations — the  last 
avatar — of  Vishnu,  and  therefore  the  real  Buddha. 
During  his  life  he  was  known  as  "the  lion,"  or 
devotee  of  the  race  of  Sakya,  and  after  his  death 
as  Buddha,  and  has  been  worshiped  as  such  down 
to  the  present  day. 

'  Buddhism  contains  less  that  is  revolting  and  im- 
moral than  any  other  heathen  system  known  in  the 
East  except  Confucianism.  Its  influence  in  China 
has  been  to  some  extent  beneficent,  chiefly  from 
the  fact  that  it  regards  man  as  responsible  for  the 
moral  quality  of  his  actions.  It  also  inculcates  pu- 
rity, charity,  and  benevolence. 

The  principal  precepts  of  Buddhism  are  ten. 
They  are  the  following:  (i)  '' Thou  shalt  not  kill." 
This  refers  to  all  creatures  that  have  life,  w^hether 
man  or  beast  or  insect.  Life  with  a  devout  Bud- 
dhist is  sacred,  no  matter  in  w^hat  form  it  manifests 
itself.  The  doctrine  of  the  transmigration  of  souls 
adds  emphasis  to  the  first  commandment,  because 
we  cannot  know  what  soul  may  be  incarnate  in  the 


RELIGIONS   OF   CHINA.  121 

creature  we  would  slay.  It  would  be  an  awful 
crime  to  thus  destroy  a  father  or  mother,  and  so  the 
commandment  covers  all  forms  of  life.  (  2  )  * '  Thou 
shalt  not  steal."  (3)  "  Thou  shalt  not  commit 
adultery."  (4)  *' Thou  shalt  not  lie."  (5)  '^  Thou 
shalt  not  slander."  (6)  '*  Thou  shalt  not  desire  the 
death  of  thine  enemies."  (7)  "  Thou  shalt  not 
covet."  (8)  "Thou  shalt  abhor  all  idle  and  in- 
decent conversation."  (9)  "Thou  shalt  not  be- 
tray the  secret  of  another."  (10)  "  Do  not  err  in 
the  true  faith,  or  think  it  false." 

Those  who  would  attain  higher  degrees  of  holi- 
ness must  also  obey  the  following  commandments: 
"  Thou  shalt  not  marry,  drink  intoxicating  liq- 
uors, smell  odoriferous  flowers,  wear  costly  gar- 
ments, or  eat  food  in  the  afternoon."  *  Where  can 
we  find  a  better  code  of  laws  governing  the  indi- 
vidual or  social  life,  except  in  our  own  inspired 
Scriptures,  where  we  have  "the  perfect  laws?" 
There  is  in  our  "Ten  Commandments"  a  com- 
plete system  of  moral  law  without  a  weak  word, 
or  an  imperfect  phrase,  or  anything  approaching 
the  absurd  or  unreasonable.  Not  so  with  the  pre- 
cepts of  Buddha.  What  reason  can  be  given  for 
the  prohibition  against  smelling  "  odoriferous  flow- 
ers," or  "eating  food  in  the  afternoon?"  It  is 
true,  smelling  the  flowers  might  be  considered  a 
luxury,  and  therefore  forbidden;  and  eating  in  the 
afternoon  a  sign  of  gluttony,  and  so  condemned 
as  a  sin,  but  what  trifles  compared  with  the  many 

*  These  commandments  apply  chiefly  to  the  priesthood. 


122  HISTORY  OF  THE   CHINESE. 

things  not  prohibited !  There  is  nothing  of  this 
kind  of  frivoHty  in  our  Scriptures. 

Buddhism  has  no  Saviour,  no  atonement,  but 
leaves  the  sinner  to  deal  with  himself  in  a  busi- 
ness way.  He  is  supposed  to  open  a  debit  and 
credit  account  with  himself  and  heaven.  If  at  the 
end  of  life  his  good  deeds  overbalance  his  evil 
deeds,  then  he  is  entitled  to  reward,  and  will  en- 
joy in  the  future  state  whatever  good  may  be  re- 
served for  the  righteous.  If,  on  the  other  hand, 
his  evil  deeds  preponderate,  he  will  be  doomed  to 
suffering  according  to  the  demerit  of  his  sins. 

One  way  of  laying  up  merit  is  to  repeat  the 
name  of  Buddha.  This  may  be  carried  to  any  ex- 
tent the  devotee  is  able  to  repeat  the  sacred  name. 
When  a  person  has  repeated  it  three  hundred 
thousand  times,  he  may  begin  to  hope  for  a  vision 
of  the  god.  Another  method  of  laying  up  treasure 
in  heaven  is  to  enter  a  small  cell  and  have  the  en- 
trance sealed  so  that  the  devotee  cannot  get  out 
until  the  end  of  the  time  for  which  he  has  taken 
a  vow,  usually  three  or  five  years.  His  sole  oc- 
cupation is  repeating  the  name  of  Buddha.  He 
uses  a  rosary  like  the  Roman  Catholics.  Many 
lose  their  reason  while  incarcerated  in  their  nar- 
row cells,  and  are  regarded  as  inspired  persons 
ever  afterwards. 

Besides  the  repetition  of  prayers  to  Buddha, 
there  are  other  means  of  acquiring  merit,  such  as 
repairing  a  road,  building  a  bridge,  giving  ground 
for  a  grave,  giving  alms  to  the  poor.     All  these 


RELIGIONS   OF  CHINA.  1 23 

acts  are  esteemed  meritorious,  and  the  man  who 
performs  them  is  accounted  righteous.  The  high- 
est rewards  are  given  to  those  who  make  an  image 
of  Buddha,  or  write  a  sermon  on  his  doctrine,  or 
perform  any  act  which  may  benefit  a  priest,  such 
as  giving  him  money,  building  or  decorating  a 
temple,  etc. 

Absorption  is  considered  the  highest  state  of 
bliss  which  any  mortal  can  attain  ;  to  be  swallowed 
up  in  *'  the  eternal  essence  " — a  state  of  utter  un- 
consciousness in  which  personality  is  lost.  It  is 
annihilation.  But  few,  however,  reach  this  sub- 
lime state  of  absolute  rest.  It  requires  a  life  of 
peculiar  sanctity,  many  repetitions  of  the  name  of 
Buddha,  and  many  acts  of  mercy  and  charity; 
also  perfect  abstraction  from  the  world  in  which 
the  pleasures  of  sense  no  longer  allure  the  passions 
or  disturb  the  tranquil  repose  of  the  spirit.  If  a 
man  can  become  so  holy  as  to  stop  thinking  en- 
tirely, he  may  be  sure  of  happiness  when  he  dies. 
It  is  pathetic  to  see  a  poor  blind  soul  thus  strug- 
gling after  the  light:  burdened  with  a  sense  of 
sin,  oppressed  with  the  cares  and  anxieties  of  life, 
wandering  to  and  fro,  seeking  rest  and  finding 
none.  Surely  the  great  Father  of  us  all  regards 
with  tender  compassion  these  lost  sheep  of  the  wil- 
derness. 

THE  TRANSMIGRATION  OF  SOULS. 

This  is  one  of  the  principal  dogmas  of  Buddhism, 
and  one  of  the  most  universal  tenets  in  heathenism. 
The  end  of  all  the  weary  changes  through  which 


124  HISTORY  OF  THE   CHINESE. 

the  soul  must  pass  in  its  transmigrations  is  annihi- 
lation, or  to  "  be  swallowed  up  in  the  crystal  sea 
of  universal  being. ' '  All  the  devotees  of  Buddhism 
do  not  expect  this  highest  estate,  or  if  they  do  hope 
for  it  they  must  expect  to  toil  through  the  changes 
of  the  *' thirty-three  heavens."  This  will  require 
ages  upon  ages.  The  soul,  when  it  enters  the 
spirit  world,  is  judged  and  sent  on  its  endless 
round  of  transmigrations,  either  up  or  down  in 
the  scale  of  existence.  The  man  who  has  lived  a 
wicked  and  unclean  life  in  this  world  will  descend 
and  perhaps  enter  the  body  of  some  beast  or  worm, 
to  grovel  in  the  dust  among  the  lowest  forms  of 
animal  life.  In  some  remote  period,  when  he  has 
atoned  for  his  sins  by  suffering,  he  may  return  to 
this  world  again  and  be  born  a  man  or  a  horse, 
an  ox  or  a  woman. 

The  idea  upon  which  the  doctrine  of  transmi- 
gration is  based  seems  to  be  connected  with  the 
Buddhist  theory  of  the  creation.  The  Buddhists 
believe  that  matter  is  eternal,  and  that  anything 
which  has  life  has  within  itself  that  which  has 
brought  it  into  existence,  and  also  contains  within 
itself  a  certain  tendency  to  a  fixed  destiny.  The 
world  was  brought  into  existence  by  this  law  of 
tendency,  and  it  is  destined  to  destruction,  to  be 
followed  by  another  world,  and  that  by  another, 
and  that  by  myriads  of  other  worlds.  The  period 
of  the  world's  existence  is  called  a  kalpa.  One 
writer  has  said,  in  trying  to  illustrate  the  duration 
of  a  kalpa:    ''If  a  man  were  to  walk  up  a  moun^ 


RELIGIONS   OF   CHINA.  1 25 

tain  nine  miles  high  once  in  every  hundred  years, 
and  continue  to  do  so  until  the  mountain  was  worn 
down  to  a  plain,  the  time  required  would  be  noth- 
ing compared  with  the  fourth  part  of  a  kalpa." 
Now,  as  one  world  when  destroyed  springs  up 
again  to  pass  through  another  stage  of  existence, 
so  man  when  he  dies  merely  passes  into  another 
state  of  being,  to  come  into  the  world  again  at 
some  future  time.  What  his  condition  shall  be 
depends  upon  his  conduct  in  the  previous  state  of 
existence;  what  kind  of  an  animal  he  will  be,  how 
long  he  will  continue,  etc.,  will  depend  upon  his 
character. 

A  very  wicked  man  may  pass  at  once  into  hell 
when  he  dies.  He  will  thus  be  deprived  of  the 
opportunity  to  repent,  or  to  acquire  merit  by  good 
deeds.  According  to  the  sacred  books  of  the 
Buddhists  there  are  eight  principal  and  sixteen 
smaller  hells.  They  are  inclosed  on  all  sides  by 
high  walls  thirty-six  miles  thick.  All  kinds,  all 
conceivable  modes  of  torture  are  inflicted  on  the 
wicked  in  these  hells.  In  one  place  a  man  is  be- 
ing pounded  by  a  large  hammer  until  his  bones 
are  crushed  to  a  jelly.  Another  is  having  the  flesh 
torn  from  his  bones  with  red-hot  pinchers.  Some 
are  roasted  on  spits,  some  have  melted  lead  poured 
down  their  throats,  and  others  are  boiled  in  oil. 
The  man  who  has  murdered  his  father  or  mother 
suffers  all  the  torments  of  all  the  hells  forever. 

The    Buddhist    heaven    (or  heavens,   for  there 
are  thirty-three  in  all)  is  a  place  of  rest  and  per- 


126  HISTORY   OF   THE   CHINESE. 

feet  enjoyment,  where  the  inhabitants  are  exempt 
from  toil  and  sorrow,  from  sickness  and  suffering. 
They  dwell  in  beautiful  palaces,  and  spend  their 
time  in  dancing  with  beautiful  goddesses.  This 
lovely  place  is  sometimes  called  "The  Happy  Land 
in  the  West."  It  is  a  country  of  gardens  and  pal- 
aces, with  birds  of  melodious  song,  and  where  all 
desires  are  fully  gratified.  This  state  of  blessed- 
ness can  be  attained  only  by  the  most  enthusiastic 
devotees  of  Buddha,  after  long  ages  of  toil  and 
suffering,  in  which  an  infinite  amount  of  merit  has 
been  acquired. 

Such  is  a  brief  outline  of  the  Buddhist  creed,  so 
far  as  it  exists  among  the  common  people  in  China. 
There  is  a  metaphysical  phase  of  Buddhist  teach- 
ing which  belongs  rather  to  philosoph}^  than  reli- 
gion. With  this  the  Chinese  have  little  sympathy. 
They  are  practical,  not  speculative.  This  *'  higher 
Buddhism,"  as  it  is  called,  has  captivated  the  imag- 
inations of  some  Europeans  who  affect  much  ad- 
miration for  its  "lofty  and  sublime  character." 
This  is  what  Sir  Edwin  Arnold  calls  "  The  Light 
of  Asia."  It  is  poor  philosophy,  and  worse  reli- 
gion. His  poem  is  beautiful  enough,  but  it  is  po- 
etry, not  a  fair  account  of  Buddhism,  not  even  an 
imitation  of  it,  as  it  actually  exists  in  China. 

The  dogma  of  transmigration  is  degrading  to 
man  in  every  feature  of  it.  It  places  him  on  a 
level  with  the  beasts  that  perish,  and  in  its  practi- 
cal workings  sinks  him  far  below  the  irrational  cre- 
ation, even  to  the  vilest  and  most  disgusting  forms 


RELIGIONS   OF   CHINA. 


of  life.  To-day  he  is  a  man  with  reason,  affections, 
hopes,  fears,  joys,  and  sorrows;  to-morrow  he  is 
a  whining  dog,  the  companion  of  owls  and  bats, 
or  a  wild  beast  of  the  jungle ;  to-day  he  may  com- 
mand an  army  or  rule  a  nation;  to-morrow  he 
may  be  chased  by  the  hunter's  hounds ! 

An  old  man  in  China  once  said  to  a  missionary: 
**I  have  for  some  time  past  lived  on  the  emperor's 
benevolence.  The  priests  assure  me  that  after 
death  I  shall  be  obliged  to  repay  the  emperor's 
generosity  by  becoming  a  post  horse  to  carry  his 
dispatches.  They  exhort  me  to  take  care  not  to 
stumble,  or  wince,  or  bite.  They  tell  me  if  I 
travel  well,  eat  httle,  and  am  patient,  I  may  excite 
the  compassion  of  the  gods,  and  be  born  into  the 
world  as  a  man  of  rank.  Sometimes  I  dream  that 
I  am  ready  harnessed  for  the  rider,  and  I  wake  in 
a  sweat,  hardly  knowing  whether  I  am  a  man  or  a 
horse.  They  tell  me  that  people  of  your  religion 
continue  to  be  men  in  the  next  world  as  they  are 
in  this.  I  am  ready  to  embrace  your  religion,  for 
I  had  rather  be  a  Christian  than  become  a  beast." 
He  was  baptized  and  died  happy,  believing  that 
he  was  saved  from  being  a  post  horse. 

Buddhist  priests  are  seen  everywhere  in  China. 
They  have  little  influence  personally  with  the  peo- 
ple. They  are  regarded  as  mere  servants  whose 
business  it  is  to  take  care  of  the  temples,  idols,  and 
the  furniture  belonging  to  the  temples.  They  are, 
as  a  rule,  ignorant  of  everything  except  the  manual 
service  required  of  them,   and   such  professional 


128  HISTORY   OF   THE    CHINESE. 

attention  at  funerals,  feasts,  etc.,  as  custom  de- 
mands. The  literary  class  denounces  them  as  an 
ignorant,  idle,  and  lazy  set,  and  the  people  gen- 
erally despise  them,  except  when  acting  in  their 
office  as  priests.  Not  only  are  they  idle  and  lazy, 
but  they  are  grossly  immoral,  spending  their  time  in 
gambling  and  smoking  opium.  Their  numbers  are 
recruited  from  the  lower  ranks  of  society,  espe- 
cially from  the  very  poor  families. 

I  have  thus  sketched  Buddhism  as  it  exists  in 
China.  It  is  that  form  of  Buddhism  which  the 
Chinese  accept — the  popular  form — and  not  Bud- 
dhism as  it  exists  in  India.  The  Buddhism  of 
India  bears  somewhat  the  relation  to  Brahman- 
ism  that  Protestantism  does  to  Romanism.*  The 
Brahmans  persecuted  the  Buddhists  of  India  with 
great  cruelty,  and  this  caused  the  Buddhist  priests 
to  become  missionaries  and  spread  their  religion 
through  other  countries.  They  are  in  China,  Tar- 
tary,  Thibet,  Siam,  Japan,  Ceylon,  and  other  coun- 
tries of  the  East.  Buddhism  is  the  best  heathen 
religion  in  the  world.  It  has  been  called  "The 
Christianity  of  the  East."  This  is  a  little  too 
much  praise.  It  does  not  approach  our  blessed 
Christianity,  except  remotely  in  its  benevolent 
teachings.  There  is  but  one  "  name  under  heav- 
en given  among  men  whereby  we  must  be  saved  " 
— the  name  of  Jesus  Christ. 

*The  Buddhists  were  reformers. 


TEMPLE   OF  THE   FIVE   HUNDRED  GODS. 


(129) 


CHAPTER  XL 
Religions  of  China  (Continued). 

TAOISM. 

TAOISM  is  the  least  influential  system  of  religious 
belief  in  China.  It  is  too  mystical  for  the  prac- 
tical Chinese.  Its  founder,  Lau-tsz,  was  a  contem- 
porary of  Confucius,  and  the  two  once  met.  Con- 
fucius said  he  could  not  understand  Lau-tsz,  and 
never  afterwards  sought  an}'  intercourse  with  him. 
His  only  book  that  has  survived  the  ages  is  a  work 
entitled  **  Reason  and  Virtue,"  an  exceedingly  ob- 
scure production,  both  in  style  and  sentiment. 

Many  foolish  stories  are  told  of  Lau-tsz,  such 
as  that  he  was  eighty  years  old  when  born;  that 
he  had  appeared  on  earth  three  different  times  at 
intervals  of  a  thousand  years;  and  other  absurd 
legends.  He  spent  his  life  as  an  ascetic  in  solitude, 
and  taught  that  man's  spiritual  nature  can  best  be 
purified,  and  his  passions  brought  under  control, 
by  habitual  silence  and  meditation. 

It  is  impossible  to  give  an  intelligent  expression 
to  what  we  do  not  understand.  The  vagaries  of 
Taoism  are  utterly  incomprehensible  to  a  Western 
mind.  For  example,  the  existence  of  the  world  is 
thus  accounted  for:  "  Reason  produced  one,  one 
produced  two,  and  two  produced  three,  and  three 
produced  all  things."  Again:  '*  Before  the  birth 
of  heaven  and  earth,  there  existed  only  an  im- 
(130) 


RELIGIONS    OF   CHINA.  I3I 

mense  silence  in  illimitable  space ;  an  immeasura- 
ble void  in  endless  silence."  No  wonder  Confu- 
cius said  he  could  not  understand  Lau-tsz  !  The 
reader  is  probably  in  the  same  mental  condition  as 
to  the  meaning  of  the  above  extract.  I  could  add 
many  more  specimens  of  the  same  lucid  character, 
but  presume  enough  has  been  given  to  satisfy  even 
the  most  curious. 

The  forms  of  worship  and  other  religious  rites 
of  the  Taoists  resemble  those  of  the  Buddhists  so 
nearly  that  the  differences  are  discernible  only 
in  the  dress  and  general  appearance  of  the  priests 
of  the  two  sects.  The  Buddhists  shave  off  all 
the  hair  of  their  head,  while  the  Taoists  leave 
a  tuft  of  hair  on  the  back  of  the  head.  The  offi- 
cial robes  of  the  Taoists  are  not  so  long  as  those 
of  the  Buddhist  priests.  Those  of  the  Buddhists 
are  yellow,  and  those  of  the  Taoists  are  red. 

The  Taoists  profess  to  have  great  power  over 
evil  spirits — '*  the  demons  of  the  invisible  world." 
The  high  priest,  or  head  of  the  sect,  like  the  Lama 
of  Thibet,  is  supposed  to  be  immortal;  that  is,  as 
soon  as  one  dies  another  is  appointed  to  take  his 
place,  and  the  spirit  of  the  dead  priest  enters  into 
his  successor.  Thus  the  office  is  perpetual,  while 
the  individual  is,  like  other  men,  mortal. 

Dr.  Medhurst,  in  his  *'  State  and  Prospects  of 
China,"  mentions  some  curious  ceremonies  ob- 
served by  the  Taoists.  He  says:  *'  Death  is  with 
them  peculiarly  unclean,  and  whenever  it  occurs 
brings  a  number  of  evil  influences  into  the  dwell- 


132  HISTORY   OF   THE    CHINESE. 

ing,  which  are  only  to  be  expelled  by  the  sac- 
rifices and  prayers  of  Taoist  priests.  This  is 
what  they  call  'cleansing  the  house;'  and  as  it  is 
attended  by  some  expense,  many  prefer  turning 
lodgers  and  strangers  out  in  dying  circumstances 
rather  than  have  the  house  haunted  with  ghosts  for 
years  afterwards."  They  also  have  a  ceremony  for 
cleansing  districts  from  contagion.  "One  of  the 
solemnities  is  celebrated  on  the  third  day  of  the 
third  moon,  when  the  votaries  of  Taoism  go  bare- 
foot over  lighted  charcoal,  by  which  the}"  fancy 
that  they  triumph  over  the  demons  they  dread,  and 
please  the  gods  they  adore.  On  the  anniversary 
of  the  birth  of  the  '  high  emperor  of  the  somber 
heavens  '  they  assemble  before  the  temple  of  this 
imaginary  being,  and  having  made  a  great  fire, 
fifteen  or  twenty  feet  in  diameter,  they  go  over  it 
barefooted,  bearing  the  gods  in  their  arms."  They 
chant  prayers,  ring  bells,  sprinkle  holy  water, 
blow  horns,  brandish  swords  with  which  they 
strike  the  fire,  to  subdue  or  frighten  away  the 
demons.  Other  ceremonies  of  the  Taoists  will  be 
described  hereafter. 

TEMPLES,  FORMS  OF  WORSHIP,  ETC. 

It  will  be  appropriate  to  close  the  chapters  on 
the  "Religions  of  China"  with  some  account 
of  the  temples  and  temple  worship  of  the  Chi- 
nese. 

The  most  conspicuous  buildings  in  a  Chinese 
landscape  are  the  temples,  pagodas,  and  the  offices 
of  the  government  officials.     The  temples  dedica- 


RELIGIONS   OF   CHINA.  I33 

ted  to  Buddha,  the  pagodas  and  shrines  connected 
with  this  sect,  far  outnumber  all  the  others  put  to- 
gether. All  are  built  after  the  same  m.odel,  though 
differing  greatly  in  size  and  expensiveness.  Some" 
cost  hundreds  of  thousands  of  dollars,  others  a  few 
thousand,  and  some  only  a  few  hundred.  It  is  con- 
sidered a  very  meritorious  act  to  aid  in  building  a 
temple  or  pagoda.  Some  wealthy  men  build  tem- 
ples at  their  own  expense,  as  rich  men  sometimes 
build  churches  in  Christian  countries. 

Temples  dedicated  to  the  worship  of  Confucius 
exist  in  every  district  and  in  every  department  of 
the  empire,  where  ceremonies  in  honor  of  the  great 
sage  are  performed  by  the  mandarins  in  the  second 
and  eighth  months  of  every  year.  These  temples 
differ  from  the  Buddhist  temples  in  many  respects. 
Externally  they  present  nothing  very  striking,  but 
within  they  are  richly  ornamented.  The  floor  is 
paved  with  stone  slabs.  The  roof  is  supported  by 
immense  columns,  and  the  woodwork  near  the  roof 
is  covered  with  landscape  paintings  in  the  best 
style  of  Chinese  art.  There  is  no  ceiling.  There 
are  no  images,  except  perhaps  a  statue  or  painting 
intended  to  represent  the  person  of  Confucius ;  but 
it  is  not  worshiped.  The  **  spirit  tablets"  stand 
for  the  sage  and  his  most  distinguished  disciples. 
These  *' tablets"  are  nothing  but  small  pieces  of 
board,  neatly  varnished,  and  each  inscribed  with 
the  name  of  one  of  the  sages.  They  are  inserted 
into  little  pedestals,  so  as  to  make  them  stand  up- 
right in  their  places. 


134  HISTORY   OF   THE   CHINESE. 

The  offerings  presented  to  Confucius  consist  of 
animals,  silks,  wine,  and  vegetables.  It  is  esti- 
mated that  there  are  about  fifteen  hundred  temples 
dedicated  to  Confucius  in  the  Chinese  empire,  and 
that  there  are  annually  offered  to  him  sixty-two 
thousand  pigs,  rabbits,  sheep,  and  deer,  and  twen- 
ty-seven thousand  pieces  of  silk.  These  offerings 
are  presented  very  early  in  the  morning,  usually 
before  daylight.  Spectators  are  not  permitted  to 
be  present,  and  no  priest  is  allowed  to  have  any 
part  in  the  service.  Occasionally  a  foreigner  man- 
ages to  witness,  in  a  clandestine  way,  these  strange 
rites.  An  American  thus  describes  what  he  wit- 
nessed on  one  occasion  in  the  Confucian  temple 
at  Shanghai:  '*  In  front  of  the  great  tablet  of 
Confucius,  and  a  little  to  the  right,  we  saw  the 
carcass  of  a  large  ox,  the  skin  having  been  re- 
moved, placed  on  a  rack,  its  head  facing  the  altar. 
On  the  left  a  pig  and  a  goat  were  placed  in  a  sim- 
ilar position.  A  pig  and  a  goat  were  also  placed 
before  the  tablets  of  the  seventy-two  disciples,  and 
a  piece  of  carpeting  on  the  floor  indicating  where 
the  w^orshipers  were  to  kneel.  The  altar  is  noth- 
ing but  a  long  table  painted  red.  The  principal 
officer  entered  the  hall,  preceded  by  two  musicians, 
one  tapping  a  small  drum,  the  other  playing  a  flute. 
He  stopped  in  front  of  the  door  in  the  court.  An 
attendant  cried  out  to  him  in  a  loud  voice,  and  he 
dropped  on  his  knees.  Then  the  word  is  given 
to  "knock  head,"  and  the  worshiper  strikes  the 
ground  three  times  with  his  head,  and  then  rises 


RELIGIONS   OF   CHINA.  I35 

to  his  feet.  This  ceremony  is  repeated  three  times. 
The  worshiper  then  enters  the  great  hall  and  kneels 
before  the  tablet  of  Confucius,  an  attendant  kneel- 
ing on  his  right,  and  another  on  his  left.  A  third 
attendant  takes  a  small  box  from  the  altar  and 
hands  it  to  the  attendant  kneeling-on  the  left,  and 
he  passes  it  to  the  worshiper.  He  takes  it  in  both 
hands,  elevates  it  a  moment,  and  then  gives  it  to 
the  attendant  kneeling  on  his  right,  who  places  it 
on  the  altar.  This  ceremony  is  repeated  before 
each  tablet  in  the  hall." 

The  foregoing  is  only  a  part  of  the  tedious,  and 
to  a  stranger  meaningless,  ceremony.  I  have  given 
thus  much  as  a  sample  of  the  whole  two  hours'  per- 
formance, enough  I  presume  to  afford  the  reader 
some  idea  of  the  character  of  the  service.  The 
Confucian  temples  are  closed  except  on  the  two 
days  of  worship  in  the  year,  and  are  not  therefore, 
like  the  Buddhist  temples,  places  of  resort  for  the 
common  people.  I  visited  one  Confucian  temple, 
but  witnessed  no  act  of  worship. 

Buddhist  temples  are  not  only  numerous  in  Chi- 
na, but  man}^  of  them  are  spacious  buildings,  fur- 
nishing a  permanent  home  for  several  hundred 
priests,  besides  ample  room  for  the  many  large 
idols  which  they  contain,  and  the  multitudes  of 
worshipers  who  throng  their  halls  and  altars.  Dur- 
ing his  residence  in  China  the  writer  visited  sev- 
eral large  monasteries  and  many  common  Buddhist 
temples.  A  description  of  one  may  serve  as  a  gen- 
eral description  of   all,  for  they  differ  chiefly  in 


136  HISTORY   OF   THE   CHINESE. 

size  and  elaborateness  of  finish.  Some  of  them 
are  grand  and  elegant  structures,  others  are 
neglected  and  filthy.  They  are  usually  situated 
on  some  elevation  surrounded  by  natural  scenery. 
Many  of  the  large  monasteries  cover  several  acres, 
and  are  an  ornament  to  the  city  and  surrounding 
country. 

I  have  in  mind  a  temple  which  may  be  taken  as 
a  fair  representative  of  all  others.  It  is  situated 
inside  the  city  walls,  and  is  a  popular  shrine  where 
multitudes  of  the  common  people  worship.  The 
main  building  presents  an  imposing  front.  It  is 
open,  and  the  large  image  of  Buddha,  which  oc- 
cupies a  central  position  just  inside  the  entrance,  is 
visible  from  the  time  you  enter  the  gate  of  the  in- 
closure.  This  image  is  fifteen  or  twenty  feet  high, 
though  in  a  sitting  posture.  He  wears  a  crown  of 
blue  filigree  work  of  curious  shape.  His  throne 
rests  on  a  square  base,  so  covered  with  gaudy  dra- 
pery as  to  resemble  a  show  stand.  In  front  of  him 
is  an  altar  on  which  incense  is  kept  burning,  and 
near  it  a  long  rack  for  candles.  The  image  of 
Buddha  does  not  resemble  the  Chinese  features, 
but  rather  the  Hindoo.  The  countenance  wears  a 
quiet,  benevolent  expression,  and  the  whole  im- 
pression is  pleasing.  On  either  side  of  the  entrance 
stands  a  guardian.  The  one  on  the  right  hand  is 
an  enormous  black  giant,  who  grasps  a  bludgeon 
in  his  right  hand  and  a  dagger  in  his  left.  The 
one  on  the  opposite  side  is  a  more  fearful-looking 
creature,  if  possible,  than  the  other.     He  is  fully 


RELIGIONS  OF  CHINA.  137 

eighteen  feet  high,  and  flourishes  a  thunderbolt  in 
one  hand  and  a  flaming  torch  in  the  other.  Near 
these  monsters  stand  two  assistants,  who,  though 
less  fierce  in  countenance,  are  by  no  means  at- 
tractive. Immediately  in  the  rear  of  the  image  of 
Buddha,  and  separated  from  it  by  a  thin  partition, 
is  another  idol.  This  figure  holds  in  his  hand  a 
club  with  which  to  beat  off  the  evil  spirits  that 
might  wish  to  disturb  the  services. 

In  the  rear  of  the  front  room  is  another  build- 
ing, sixty  feet  deep,  and  perhaps  one  hundred 
feet  wide.  This  is  devoted  to  the  worship  of  the 
*'  Three  Precious  Buddhas."  Here  the  priests  as- 
semble morning  and  evening  for  worship .  Against 
a  high  gilded  screen  in  the  rear  are  placed  the 
three  idols.  Their  size  corresponds  to  the  other 
images.  Their  faces  are  mild  and  expressive  of 
benevolence.  These  figures  represent  the  past,  \ 
present,  and  future  incarnations  of  Buddha. 

The  third  temple  is  situated  still  farther  in  the 
rear,  and  contains  several  images  of  the  '^  God- 
dess of  Mercy."  The  largest  of  the  three  images 
sits  in  the  middle,  and  the  two  smaller  ones  on 
each  side.  In  time  of  famine  or  pestilence  prayers 
are  offered  to  this  popular  goddess.  Her  image  is 
sometimes  carried  through  the  streets,  that  all  may 
be  able  to  see  and  worship  it. 

There  are  other  buildings  connected  with  the 
main  temple,  in  which  the  priests  reside,  and  for 
other  purposes.  There  are  also  libraries  belong- 
ing to  the  monasteries  and  larger  temples.     In  all 


138  HISTORY   OF   THE    CHINESE. 

the  rooms  of  the  main  building  there  are  idols 
with  altars  in  front  of  them  on  which  incense  is 
burned,  and  mats  on  the  floor  for  kneeling  wor- 
shipers. All  the  buildings  are  dark  and  gloomy, 
and  the  associations  are  not  calculated  to  relieve 
the  somber  impression  made  upon  the  mind  of  the 
Christian  visitor. 

The  reader  who  has  never  been  in  a  heathen 
temple,  and  who  has  never  witnessed  heathen 
worship,  may  be  interested  in  a  description  of  a 
Buddhist  service.  Dr.  Culbertson  describes  what 
he  witnessed  in  the  island  of  Poo-to,  famous  in  the 
annals  of  Buddhism  for  the  last  thousand  years. 
As  he  entered  one  of  the  temples  he  heard  *'  a 
low,  monotonous  chant.  The  priests  were  at  their 
devotions.  In  the  elevated  shrine  sit  the  Three  Pre- 
cious Buddhas — huge  idols,  once  gaudily  gilded 
and  painted,  but  now  dingy  with  age.  The  smoke 
of  incense  rises  from  the  huge  censer  which  stands 
upon  the  altar.  In  front  of  the  altar  stand  four- 
teen priests,  erect,  motionless,  with  clasped  hands 
and  downcast  eyes,  a  posture  which,  with  their 
shaven  heads  and  long  flowing  robes,  gives  them 
an  appearance  of  the  deepest  solemnity.  The  low 
and  solemn  tones  of  the  slowly  moving  chant  they 
are  singing  might,  but  for  the  hideous  idols, 
awaken  solemn  emotions.  The  priests  keep  time 
with  the  music,  one  by  beating  on  an  immense  drum 
suspended  from  the  roof,  another  on  a  large  iron 
vessel,  and  the  third  on  a  hollow  wooden  sounding- 
piece  about  the  size  and  shape  of  a  human  skull. 


RELIGIONS   OF   CHINA.  139 

Continuing  the  chant  for  a  short  time,  they  sud- 
denly, at  a  signal  from  a  small  bell  in  the  hand 
of  their  leader,  kneel  upon  low  stools  covered  with 
straw  matting,  at  the  same  time  bowing  low  and 
striking  their  foreheads  against  the  stone  pave- 
ment. Then  slowly  rising,  they  face  inward  to- 
ward the  altar,  seven  facing  to  the  right  and 
seven  to  the  left,  and  resume  their  chant.  At 
first  they  sing  in  a  slowly  moving  measure,  then 
gradually  increase  the  rapidity  of  the  music  until 
they  utter  the  words  as  fast  as  it  is  possible  to  ar- 
ticulate, after  which  they  return  gradually  to  the 
slow  and  solemn  measure  with  which  they  com- 
menced. Again  a  signal  from  the  little  bell  changes 
their  movement,  and  they  march  slowly  in  proces- 
sion around  the  shrine,  while  one  of  their  number 
takes  a  cup  of  holy  water  and  pours  it  upon  a  low 
stone  pillar  at  the  temple  door.  Thus  they  con- 
tinue their  prostrations  and  chanting  and  tinkling 
of  bells  for  half  an  hour  or  more.  This  is  a  fair 
specimen  of  the  regular  worship  of  the  temples." 
Some  of  the  priests  in  a  monastery  rise  long  be- 
fore daylight,  and  strike  their  drums  and  bells  to 
rouse  their  gods  from  sleep.  Again  in  the  fore- 
noon they  are  at  their  devotions,  and  in  the  after- 
noon before  sunset  they  are  summoned  to  vespers. 
Some  of  the  more  devout  repeat  the  morning 
service  after  nine  o'clock  at  night.  Besides  these 
daily  services  they  are  often  employed  to  perform 
special  services  for  the  benefit  of  some  living  or 
dead  person,  for  which  they  are  paid. 


140  HISTORY   OF   THE    CHINESE. 

Occasionally  you  will  see  a  priest  going  through 
the  service  in  a  reverent  and  solemn  manner,  but 
usually  they  appear  utterly  indifferent  to  w^hat  they 
are  doing.  The  prayers  and  songs  they  repeat  are 
in  the  Pali  or  Sanskrit  language,  and  wholly  unin- 
telligible to  themselves.  The  entire  ritual  is  with- 
out meaning  to  priests  and  people  alike. 

The  people  worship  in  the  temples  in  a  solitary 
manner,  there  being  no  social  worship,  except 
among  the  priests,  as  just  described.  The  com- 
mon people  burn  incense,  make  offerings,  and  pray 
to  some  god  for  help  in  trouble,  for  success  in  bus- 
iness, or  for  some  special  benefit.  They  often 
exhibit  great  earnestness  in  their  devotions.  The 
women  do  most  of  the  worshiping  in  the  temples. 
The  Goddess  of  Mercy  is  their  favorite  deity. 
Her  shrine  is  covered  with  votive  offerings.  A 
few  nunneries  exist  under  the  patronage  of  the 
Goddess  of  Mercy,  or  Queen  of  Heaven,  as 
she  is  sometimes  called.  The  nuns  are  recruit- 
ed, like  the  priesthood,  by  purchase,  or  by  self- 
consecration.  They  are  required  to  live  a  life 
of  devotion  and  mortification,  eat  vegetables,  care 
nothing  for  the  world,  and  keep  themselves  busy 
with  the  services  of  the  temple,  attend  the  sick, 
and  perform  acts  of  charity.  The  reader  has  no 
doubt  already  perceived  the  similarity  between 
the  rites  of  the  Buddhists  and  the  Romish  Church. 
Some  of  the  early  Romish  priests  and  missionaries 
believed  that  these  rites  had  been  derived  from  the 
Romanists  or  Syrians  who  entered  China  as  mis- 


RELIGIONS   OF   CHINA.  I4I 

sionaries  before  the  twelfth  century;  others  re- 
ferred them  to  St.  Thomas,  and  some  to  the  devil, 
who  had  thus  imitated  the  Roman  Catholic  Church 
in  order  to  scandalize  Christianity.  There  is  cer- 
tainly a  striking  similarity  between  the  Buddhist 
and  Catholic  forms  of  worship,  priestly  dresses, 
burning  of  incense,  candles,  chants,  rosaries, 
prayers  for  the  dead,  etc.  Buddhism  is  older, 
by  six  hundred  years,  than  the  Roman  Catholic 
Church.  Which  has  most  likely  copied  the  other? 
If  one  has  taken  nothing  from  the  other,  the  points 
of  resemblance  between  them  indicate  a  marvel- 
ous coincidence. 

To  one  brought  up  in  a  Christian  land,  accus- 
tomed to  the  simple  forms  of  divine  service,  reading 
the  word  of  God,  singing  the  sweet  songs  of  Zion, 
hearing  the  story  of  God's  love  for  the  world,  of 
Christ's  beautiful  life,  his  death  on  the  cross,  his 
resurrection,  his  ascension  to  heaven,  apd  all  the 
wonders  of  his  miracles  and  ministry,  together 
with  the  "  communion  of  saints  "  and  the  delight- 
ful associations  of  the  house  of  God — to  one  thus 
educated,  it  is  extremely  painful  to  witness  the 
gloomy  and  unintelligible  mummeries  of  heathen 
worship.  The  temples  are  filled  with  the  images  of 
idolatry,  and  all  connected  with  the  service  is  not 
only  strange  and  unmeaning,  but  depressing  and 
sad  beyond  expression.  There  is  nothing  cheerful 
or  hopeful  in  it.  "  Without  God,  and  without  hope 
in  the  world,"  those  who  visit  the  polluted  shrines 
of  idolatry  find  no  comfort  for  their  weary  and 


142  HISTORY   OF   THE    CHINESE. 

heavy-laden  souls,  but  return  to  their  homes  still 
bearing  their  burdens.  The  mysteries  of  life  per- 
plex them,  and  the  shadow  of  death  fills  their  anx- 
ious souls  with  gloomy  apprehensions.  Thus  living 
and  dying  they  are  unhappy. 


ANCESTRAL    HALL. 


(143) 


psELieR;^ 


/?> 


CHAPTER  XII. 
Worship  of  Ancestors. 

BEFORE  saying  anything  specially  about  the 
worship  of  ancestors,  I  will  notice  some  of 
the  popular  superstitions  connected  with  death. 
The  Chinese  seem  utterly  indifferent  to  the  mere 
fact  of  death,  or  even  of  what  may  follow  it.  This 
is  the  result  partly  of  temperament,  but  chiefly,  I 
think,  because  they  are  fatalists.  They  do  not 
believe  that  it  is  possible  for  anyone  to  die  "until 
his  time  comes,"  and  then  no  power  on  earth  can 
prevent  it.  As  they  believe  that  a  man's  future 
destiny  depends  on  the  amount  of  merit  he  has  ac- 
quired, they  expect  no  pardon  of  sin  or  commu- 
tation of  punishment,  and  therefore  accept  stolidly 
the  doom  which  awaits  them.  Some  show  signs 
of  fear  on  the  approach  of  death,  but  it  seems  to 
be  only  the  fear  which  all  animals  feel  in  the  con- 
scious presence  of  danger,  or  the  apprehension  of 
suffering,  and  not  from  any  sense  of  sin  and  the 
punishment  due  to  it. 

The  superstitions  connected  with  the  death  of  a 
person  vary  in  different  parts  of  the  country.  In 
some  places  a  piece  of  silver  is  put  in  the  mouth 
of  the  dying.  The  nose  and  ears  are  also  careful- 
ly  covered,  and  when  death  actually  takes  place  a 
hole  is  made  in  the  roof  of  the  house  to  facilitate 
(144) 


WORSHIP   OF   ANCESTORS.  I45 

the  exit  of  the  spirits  issuing  from  the  body.  The 
Chinese  beheve  a  man  has  six  animal  spirits, 
which  die  with  the  body,  and  three  souls,  one  of 
which  enters  hades  and  receives  judgment,  one 
remains  with  the  tablets  in  the  ancestral  hall,  and 
the  third  dwells  with  the  body  in  the  tomb.  Those 
who  are  sent  to  hell  pass  through  every  form  of 
suffering,  inflicted  upon  them  by  hideous  mon- 
sters, and  are  at  last  released  to  wander  about 
as  homeless  demons  to  torment  mankind,  or  vex 
themselves  in  the  bodies  of  animals  or  reptiles. 
The  priests  are  employed  to  pray  for  those  who 
are  supposed  to  be  sent  to  hell,  and  after  a  serv- 
ice, longer  or  shorter,  according  to  the  sum  of 
money  paid,  the  priest  declares  the  soul  has  crossed 
the  bridge  leading  out  of  hell,  and  is  entitled  to  a 
letter  of  recommendation  from  the  priests  to  the 
powers  who  rule  in  the  western  heaven.  With 
this  letter  in  hand,  the  soul  is  supposed  to  be  kindly 
received  into  heaven,  or  sent  to  some  other  good 
place.  This  is  one  form  of  the  superstition.  There 
are  many  others,  absurd,  contradictory,  and  so  ex- 
ceedingly coarse  and  cruel  that  I  forbear  to  record 
them.  We  are  not  responsible  for  the  incongrui- 
ties and  absurdities  so  apparent  in  these  lines. 
Nothing  is  more  confused  and  contradictory  than 
superstition;  nothing  more  irrational. 

The  body  is  prepared  for  burial  soon  after  death. 

It  is  arrayed  in  the  best  dress  the  family  can  afford. 

A  fan  is  put  in  one  hand,  and  a  prayer  on  a  piece 

of  paper  in  the  other.     The  coffin  resembles  a  sec- 

10 


146  HISTORY  OF   THE    CHINESE. 

tion  of  the  trunk  of  a  tree,  being  made  of  boards 
three  or  four  inches  thick,  and  rounded  on  the 
outside.  When  the  body  is  placed  in  the  coffin  it 
is  usually  covered  with  quicklime,  and  the  coffin 
hermetically  sealed.  Coffins  containing  the  bodies 
of  parents,  and  other  members  of  the  family,  are 
sometimes  kept  in  the  house  for  many  years,  and 
incense  is  burned  before  them  morning  and  even- 
ing. The  coffin  is  sometimes  attached  by  creditors 
to  enforce  payment  of  debt.* 

Burial  places  are  located  by  geomancers  with 
much  ceremony,  if  the  family  of  the  deceased  be 
rich.  It  is  important  that  the  fung  shwai — that  is, 
the  *' wind  and  water" — be  settled  with  great  care, 
for  if  these  be  not  right  the  soul  that  dwells  with 
the  body  in  the  grave  will  be  very  unhappy.  If 
the  family  be  poor,  the  dead  member  must  be  sat- 
isfied with  any  locality,  whether  lucky  or  unlucky, 
which  is  obtainable.  In  some  instances  a  space 
on  the  surface  of  the  ground  the  size  of  the  coffin 
is  rented  and  the  coffin  placed  upon  it,  with  no 
protection  from  the  weather.  I  have  seen  about 
Shanghai  the  coffin  supported  on  small  stakes  two 
or  three  feet  from  the  ground,  and  the  soil  under 
it  cultivated,  thus  making  the  small  spot  of  earth 
serve  a  double  purpose — feed  the  living  and  rest 
the  dead. 

When  the  day  of  burial  arrives,  which  is  usually 

*  Instances  are  on  record  of  filial  sons  who  have  sold  them- 
selves  into  slavery  in  order  to  raise  money  to  release  the  coffin 
of  their  fathers. 


WORSHIP   OF   ANCESTORS.  I47 

the  first  lucky  day  after  death,  the  friends  of  the 
deceased  assemble  at  the  house.  A  band  of  musi- 
cians attends  the  solemn  procession  from  the  home 
to  the  grave ;  the  tablet  of  the  departed  is  carried 
in  a  separate  sedan  chair ;  the  mourners  are  dressed 
entirely  in  white,  and  the  family  with  vvailings  and 
lamentations,  assisted  by  hired  mourners,  march 
slowly  to  the  place  of  interment.  When  they 
reach  the  grave  crackers  are  fired,  libations  are 
poured  out,  and  prayers  recited  by  the  priests; 
papers  are  cut  into  the  shape  of  money,  clothes, 
and  whatever  the  dead  may  need  in  the  spirit  land. 
Paper  money  is  also  freely  scattered  around  the 
grave  to  purchase  the  good  will  of  any  wandering 
spirits  that  may  be  prowling  about,  and  who  might 
disturb  or  assault  the  deceased. 

The  season  of  mourning  for  a  father  is  three 
years,  but  maybe  reduced  to  twenty-seven  months. 
Heavy  penalties  are  inflicted  upon  those  who  try 
to  conceal  the  death  of  a  parent  or  neglect  to  ob- 
serve the  rites.  For  thirty  days  after  a  death  the 
nearest  kindred  must  not  shave  their  heads  nor 
change  their  dress.  The  best  expression  of  sorrow 
is  supposed  to  be  given  in  a  careless  dress  and 
slovenly  manner,  as  if  the  mourner  were  so  ab- 
sorbed with  grief  as  to  be  indifferent  to  everything 
else.  Half  mourning  is  blue.  It  is  usually  indi- 
cated by  a  pair  of  blue  shoes,  or  a  blue  cord 
woven  into  the  hair.  The  rich  often  make  costly 
displays  of  their  mourning  dresses.  The  poor 
simply  do  the  best  they  can  to  follow  the  fashion. 


148  HISTORY   OF   THE    CHINESE. 

and  frequently  involve  themselves  in  debt  that  they 
may  make  a  show.  There  is  nothing  in  a  Chinese 
funeral  that  suggests  hope.  All  is  gloom.  The 
whole  story  is  told  in  the  pathetic  lament  of  Job : 
"Man  dieth,  and  wasteth  away:  yea,  man  giveth 
up  the  ghost,  and  where  is  he?" 

Funeral  ceremonies,  like  other  customs  in  China, 
vary  somewhat  with  the  locality.  I  have  given 
what  I  have  witnessed  myself  in  eastern  China, 
and  what  I  understand  to  be  common  throughout 
the  empire,  with  slight  modifications. 


Now  that  the  funeral  rites  have  been  properly 
observed,  and  the  deceased  is  supposed  to  be  sat- 
isfied with  all  that  has  been  done,  the  tablet  con- 
taining the  name  of  the  person,  the  date  of  his 
death,  etc.,  is  placed  in  the  ancestral  hall,  where 
it  receives  the  worship  of  the  living  members  of 
the  family,  along  with  the  other  dead  kindred.  In 
some  households  incense  is  burned  before  the  tab- 
lets morning  and  evening^ — a  sort  of  family  worship. 
In  most  families  incense  and  prostrations  are  pre- 
sented only  at  certain  seasons  of  the  year. 

The  great  festival  connected  with  the  worship  of 
the  dead,  called  '^ Ching  Ming,^'  occurs  annually 
about  the  first  week  in  April,  and  is  observed  by 
all,  from  the  emperor  down  to  the  street  beggars. 
The  whole  population,  men,  women,  and  children, 
repair  to  the  familyfombs,  carrying  their  sacrifices, 
libations,  candles,  paper,  incense,  etc.,  for  offer- 
ings, and  there,  in  a  solemn  and  decorous  manner, 


WORSHIP  OF  ANCESTORS.  I49 

perform  the  rites,  prayers,  etc.,  prescribed  by  cus- 
tom. The  grave  is  carefully  repaired  and  swept, 
and  at  the  close  of  the  services  signals  are  left  to 
show  that  the  accustomed  rites  have  been  per- 
formed. Until  a  grave  is  three  years  old  the  wom- 
en are  expected  to  attend  along  with  the  men,  but 
after  that  they  are  excused. 

A  table  is  placed  before  the  tomb,  on  which  are 
laid  the  articles  to  be  used  in  the  ceremony — food, 
incense,  and  candles.  A  sacrifice  is  first  offered  to 
the  earth,  a  portion  of  which  is  thrown  out  to  the 
four  points  of  the  compass,  for  the  benefit  of  any 
wandering  ghosts  from  the  neighboring  tombs  who 
may  happen  to  be  near;  In  return  for  this  polite 
attention  they  are  expected  to  keep  off  and  not 
disturb  the  ancestral  spirits  at  their  meal.  This 
done,  the  eldest  of  the  family  bows  before  the 
table,  and  is  followed  in  order  by  the  younger 
worshipers.  The  following  prayer  is  offered  at 
the  tomb  by  the  more  intelligent  and  devout  wor- 
shipers : 

*'  1,  Lin  Yu,  the  second  son  of  the  third  genera- 
tion, presume  to  come  before  the  grave  of  my  an- 
cestor, Lin  Kung.  Revolving  years  have  brought 
again  the  season  of  spring.  Cherishing  sentiments 
of  veneration,  I  look  up  and  sweep  your  tomb. 
Prostrate  I  pray  that  you  will  come  and  be  present ; 
and  that  you  will  grant  to  your  posterity  that  they  be 
prosperous  and  illustrious ;  at  this  genial  season  of 
showers  and  gentle  breezes,  I  desire  to  recompense 
the  root  of  my  existence,  and  exert  myself  sincere- 


150  HISTORY  OF  THE   CHINESE. 

ly.  Always  grant  your  safe  protection.  My  trust 
is  in  your  divine  spirit.  Reverently  I  present  the 
fivefold  sacrifice  of  a  pig,  a  fowl,  a  duck,  a  goose, 
and  a  fish;  also,  an  offering  of  five  plates  of  fruit, 
with  libations  of  spirituous  liquors,  earnestly  en- 
treating that  you  will  come  and  view  them.  With 
the  most  attentive  respect,  this  annunciation  is  pre- 
sented on  high." 

After  the  prayer,  paper  money,  paper  clothes, 
and  other  articles  are  sent  off  through  the  flames 
to  the  spirit  world.  Sometimes  the  money  is  in- 
closed in  a  large  envelope,  on  which  is  inscribed 
the  name  of  the  person  for  whom  it  is  intended. 
After  this,  long  strips  of  white  paper,  cut  so  as  to 
represent  strings  of  copper  cash,  are  tied  to  a  stick, 
which  is  stuck  in  the  earth  on  top  of  the  tomb,  and 
left  fluttering  in  the  breeze,  an  evidence  to  all,  the 
living  and  the  dead,  that  the  duties  of  filial  piety 
have  not  been  neglected.  This  paper  money  is  a 
cheap  way  of  furnishing  supplies  to  the  spirits  in 
the  other  world.  Ten  cents'  worth  of  gilt  paper 
is  suflficient  to  furnish  a  deceased  father  with  all 
he  can  use,  living  in  the  most  luxurious  style,  for 
twelve  months.  Exchange  is  thus  greatly  to  the 
advantage  of  the  Chinese  in  their  transactions  with 
their  dead  ancestors  in  the  spirit  world. 

The  universal  belief  among  the  Chinese  that 
the  repose  of  the  soul  in  the  future  state  depends 
materially  upon  the  pious  services  of  their  descend- 
ants in  this  world  makes  them  extremely  anxious 
for  offspring.     In  some  cases  where  a  man  has  no 


WORSHIP   OF   ANCESTORS.  I5I 

son  to  worship  at  his  tomb  he  either  adopts  a  boy 
or  makes  provision  in  his  will  to  have  the  rites  per- 
formed. Much  that  is  credited  to  filial  affection 
in  the  Chinese  is  as  purely  selfish  as  any  other  feel- 
ing of  their  sordid  nature.  They  look  forward  to 
the  time  when  they  will  be  ghosts  in  hades  and 
dependent  for  their  happiness  upon  the  attention 
of  the  living  in  this  world,  and  therefore  wish  the 
rites  of  ancestral  worship  to  be  perpetuated.  Be- 
sides this,  they  also  believe  that  if  they  do  not 
observe  the  rites  for  the  souls  of  their  ancestors 
those  souls  will  become  malignant  spirits  and  tor- 
ment them;  they  will  have  bad  luck  in  business, 
sickness  in  their  persons  and  families.  The  Chi- 
nese have  a  servile  fear  of  spirits. 

It  may  be  said  that  most  of  their  religious  acts, 
especially  those  performed  in  the  temples,  are  in- 
tended to  avert  misfortune  rather  than  supplicate 
blessings.  In  order  to  ward  off  malignant  influ- 
ences, amulets  are  worn  and  charms  hung  up  by 
persons  of  all  ranks.  Among  the  latter  are  mon- 
ey swords  made  of  coins  of  different  sovereigns, 
strung  together  in  the  form  of  a  dagger;  leaves 
of  the  sweet-flag  and  Artemisia  tied  in  a  bundle. 
The  first  is  placed  near  beds,  the  latter  over  the 
lintel,  to  drive  away  demons.  A  man  also  collects 
a  cash  or  two  from  each  of  his  friends,  and  gets  a 
lock  made,  which  he  hangs  on  his  son's  neck  in 
order  to  lock  him  to  life,  and  make  the  subscribers 
surety  for  his  safety.  Adult  females  also  wear  a 
neck  lock  for  the  same  purpose.      Old  brass  mir- 


152  HISTORY  OF  THE   CHINESE. 

rors  to  cure  mad  people  are*  hung  up  in  the  halls 
of  the  rich;  representations  of  the  unicorn,  of 
gourds,  tigers'  claws,  the  eight  diagrams,  are  worn 
to  insure  good  fortune  or  ward  off  sickness.  The 
av^erage  Chinese  believes  that  the  heavens  and  the 
earth  are  full  of  evil  spirits,  and  among  the  most 
malignant  and  powerful  are  the  unhappy  souls  of 
men — ''the  lost  spirits  of  bad  men." 
.^^^  The  w^orship  of  ancestors  is  undoubtedly  idola- 
trous. The  dead  are  worshiped  in  the  same  manner 
and  with  the  same  offerings  with  which  the  Chinese 
worship  their  gods.  The  prayers  addressed  to  the 
gods  are  also  offered  up  before  the  tablets  in  the 
ajicestral  hall.  This  superstition  is  one  of  the  chief 
hindrances  to  the  spread  of  the  gospel  in  China. 

DEMONIACAL  POSSESSION. 

In  addition  to  what  has  been  said  on  the  subject 
of  ''Ancestral  Worship"  it  may  be  well  to  give 
some  account  of  the  Chinese  belief  concerning 
de?nons.  While  I  was  in  China,  strange  stories 
were  told  me  of  demons  entering  into  the  bodies 
of  men  and  women,  but  I  had  no  opportunity  of 
investigating  any  case,  and  was  disposed  to  class 
this  with  other  foolish  superstitions  of  the  people. 
So  far  as  I  know,  the  missionaries  generally  held 
the  same  views,  and  no  one  gave  an}^  special  at- 
tention to  the  subject  until  the  Rev.  John  L.  Ne- 
vius,  D.D.,  of  the  Presbyterian  mission  at  Chefoo, 
China,  interested  b}^  some  extraordinary  reports 
brought  to  him  hy  native  Christians,  began  a  seri- 
ous investigation  of  the  matter.     The  results  of  his 


WORSHIP   OF   ANCESTORS.  I53 

Studies  and  researches  have  recently  been  given  to 
the  pubhc  in  a  i2mo  volume  of  482  pages. 

I  knew  Dr.  Nevius  (now  deceased),  and  have 
the  utmost  confidence  in  his  ability,  learning,  and 
strict  integrity.  He  was  a  careful,  conscientious 
student,  painstaking  and  thorough  in  his  methods, 
and  free  from  prejudice.  What  therefore  he  has 
said  as  matter  of  fact  I  accept  without  question, 
and  give  great  weight  to  his  opinions.  He  spent 
forty  years  in  China,  and  had  ample  opportunities 
of  thoroughly  testing  and  verifying  all  the  state- 
ments he  has  made  concerning  the  phenomena  of 
this  difficult  and  occult  subject. 

I  shall  not  undertake  to  discuss  the  general  sub- 
ject of  demoniacal  possessions,  but  select  such 
facts  from  Dr.  Nevius  and  others  as  I  suppose  will 
interest  the  reader.  No  thoughtful  person  can  fail 
to  see  a  likeness  in  the  cases  here  given  to  the  in- 
stances of  demon  possession  recorded  in  the  New 
Testament.  I  venture  to  suggest  no  theory  coti- 
cerning  the  seeming  analogy.  The  subject  is  too 
grave  and  too  difficult  for  casual  treatment,  except 
as  a  simple  narrative  of  phenomena. 

The  Chinese  discriminate  between  lunatics  and 
those  possessed  by  demons,  both  by  their  appear- 
ance and  language.  The  person  possessed  has  a 
cringing  manner,  and  speaks  in  the  name  of  the 
demon,  and  not  in  his  own.  The  demoniac  some- 
times becomes  extremely  violent,  smashes  every- 
thing near  him,  exhibits  superhuman  strength,  tears 
his  clothes  into  rags,  and  rushes  into  the  street, 


154  HISTORY   OF   THE    CHINESE. 

or  into  the  mountains,  or  wilderness,  unless  pre- 
vented. After  such  violent  demonstrations  he 
calms  down  and  submits  to  his  fate,  but  under  the 
most  heart-rending  protests. 

In  most  cases  the  demon  takes  possession  of  the 
man's  body  against  his  will,  and  he  is  helpless. 
The  kwi^  or  demon,  has  the  power  of  driving  out 
the  man's  spirit,  as  in  sleep  or  dreams.  When  the 
subject  awakes  to  consciousness  he  has  not  the 
shghtest  knowledge  of  what  has  occurred.  The 
actions  of  possessed  persons  vary  exceedingly. 
Some  leap  about  violently,  tossing  their  arms; 
others  are  quiet  in  manner,  and  only  talk  wildly, 
uttering  what  the  demon  dictates.  The  voice  is 
changed — some  imitate  a  bird,  some  squeal  like  a 
pig  or  bleat  like  a  sheep. 

Dr.  Nevius  summarizes  the  facts  which  he  has 
gathered  from  his  own  observation,  from  other 
missionaries  in  the  field,  and  from  native  Chris- 
tians.    In  this  summary  he  says: 

''Certain  physical  and  mental  phenomena,  such 
as  have  been  witnessed  in  all  ages  and  among  all 
nations,  and  attributed  to  possession  by  demons,  are 
of  frequent  occurrence  in  China. 

"The  person  supposed  to  be  possessed  by  a  de- 
mon passes  into  an  abnormal  state,  the  character  of 
which  varies  indefinitely,  being  marked  by  depres- 
sion and  melancholy,  or  even  vacancy  and  stu- 
pidity amounting  sometimes  almost  to  idiocy;  or 
it  may  be  that  he  becomes  ecstatic,  or  ferocious 
and  malignant. 


WORSHIP   OF  ANCESTORS.  1^5 

"The  most  striking  feature  of  the  cases  reported 
is  that -the  subject  represents  another  personahty 
for  the  time  being,  being  himself  partially  or  wholly 
dormant.  The  new  personality  presents  traits  of 
character  utterly  different  from  those  which  really 
belong  to  the  subject  in  his  natural  state. 

*'Many  persons  while  possessed  give  evidence 
of  knowledge  which  cannot  be  accounted  for. 
They  often  appear  to  know  of  the  Lord  Jesus 
Christ  as  a  divine  person,  and  show  an  aversion 
to  and  fear  of  him. 

"There  are  often  heard  in  connection  with  de- 
mon possessions  rappings  and  noises  where  phys- 
ical cause  for  them  cannot  be  found ;  and  tables, 
chairs,  crockery,  and  the  like  are  moved  about 
without,  so  far  as  can  be  discovered,  any  applica- 
tion of  physical  force." 

Nearly  all  the  incidents  related  in  Dr.  Nevius's 
book  were  furnished  by  native  Christians — mostly 
by  native  pastors.  These  cases,  however,  have 
been  carefully  investigated  by  intelligent  mission- 
aries, and  no  one  of  them  seems  to  have  any  doubt 
of  the  veracity  of  the  witnesses.  The  missionaries 
in  China  have  been  very  careful  and  cautious  in 
the  matter,  confining  themselves  chiefly  to  the  re- 
port of  the  peculiar  phenomena,  and  venturing  no 
hasty  opinions  on  the  subject.  They  have  avoided 
anything  that  might  lead  the  native  Christians  into 
the  belief  that  they  claim  the  power  to  "cast  out 
devils."  The  subject  is  curious  and  interesting, 
and  of  a  nature  to  require  very  careful  handling. 


156  HISTORY  OF   THE    CHINESE. 

What  I  have  written  is  intended  simply  as  informa- 
tion, with  no  definite  opinions  of  my  own,  except 
that  I  think  the  facts  reported  are  reliable.  The 
subject  presents  some  features  of  Chinese  char- 
acter w^hich  will  sooner  or  later  attract  the  atten- 
tion of  the  scientific  world. 

In  India,  Japan,  Mongolia,  Thibet,  and  Siam 
similar  instances  of  what  the  people  believe  to  be 
demoniacal  possessions  frequently  occur,  and  the 
Buddhist  priests  are  supposed  to  be  able  to  exor- 
cise the  demons  by  their  incantations.  Bishop 
Cardwell,  of  India,  has  given  much  attention  to 
the  subject,  and  has  furnished  some  valuable  in- 
formation in  connection  with  **  devil  dancing,"  a 
form  of  demoniacal  possession.     He  says: 

*'  The  devil  dancer  is  not  drunk — he  has  es- 
chewed arrack;  he  has  not  been  seized  with  epi- 
lepsy— the  sequel  shows  that.  He  is  not  attacked 
with  a  fit  of  hysteria;  although,  within  an  hour  after 
he  has  begun  his  dancing,  half  his  audience  are 
thoroughly  hysterical.  He  can  scarcely  be  mad, 
for  the  minute  the  dance  is  over  he  speaks  sanely, 
and  quietly  and  calmly.  What  is  it,  then?  You 
ask  him.  He  simply  answers:  *  The  devil  seized 
me,  sir.'  You  ask  the  bystanders.  They  simply 
answer:  '  The  devil  must  have  seized  him.'  What 
is  the  most  reasonable  inference  to  draw  from  all 
this?  Of  one  thing  I  am  assured — the  devil  dan- 
cer never  '  shams  '  excitement.  Whether  this  be 
devil  possession  or  not,  I  cannot  help  remark- 
ing that  it  appears  to  me  that  it  would  certainly 


WORSHIP   OF  ANCESTORS.  I57 

have  been  regarded  as  such  in  New  Testament 
times." 

The  bishop  says  that  during  a  devil  dance  in 
India,  the  priest  leading  the  exercise,  there  are 
'*  shrieks,  vows,  imprecations,  prayers,  and  excla- 
mations of  thankful  praise,  blended  in  one  infernal 
hubbub.  Above  all  rise  the  ghastly  gutteral  laugh- 
ter of  the  devil  dancer  and  his  stentorian  howls: 
'  I  am  God  !  I  am  the  only  true  God !  '  He  cuts 
and  hacks  and  hews  himself,  and  not  very  infre- 
quently kills  himself  then  and  there.  His  answers 
to  the  queries  put  to  him  are  generally  incoherent. 
Sometimes  he  is  sullenly  silent,  and  sometimes 
whilst  the  blood  from  his  self-inflicted  wounds 
mingles  freely  with  that  of  his  sacrifice,  he  is  most 
benign,  and  showers  his  divine  favors  of  health  and 
prosperity  all  around  him.  Hours  pass  by.  The 
trembling  crowd  stand  rooted  to  the  spot.  Sud- 
denly the  dancer  gives  a  great  bound  into  the  air. 
When  he  descends  he  is  motionless.  The  fiendish 
look  has  vanished  from  his  eyes.  His  demoniacal 
laughter  is  still.  He  speaks  to  this  and  to  that 
neighbor  quietly  and  reasonably.  He  lays  aside 
his  garb,  washes  his  face  at  the  nearest  rivulet, 
and  walks  soberly  home,  a  modest,  well-conducted 
man." 

What  does  this  all  mean  ?  Is  there  such  a  thing 
as  demoniacal  possession  in  the  present  day;  and 
if  it  does  exist,  does  it  differ  materially  from  the 
"possessions"  of  the  New  Testament  record?  To 
this  question  I  suggest  no  answer. 


t'^*" 


PRACTICING    ARCHERY 


(158) 


CHINESE   SOLDIERS. 


CHAPTER  XIII. 
The  Sciences  in  China. 

THE  Chinese  have  been  close  observers  of  nature, 
and  have  thus  gathered  many  valuable  facts  in 
nearly  every  department  of  natural  science ;  but  be- 
ing totally  ignorant  of  the  laws  of  generalization 
and  classification,  they  have  failed  to  make  much 
progress  beyond  the  observation  of  phenomena. 

The  practical  character  of  the  Chinese  mind  has 
prompted  them  to  ignore  or  discredit  all  specula- 
tive and  abstract  investigation,  and  to  confine  them- 
selves almost  exclusively  to  ''immediate  utility." 
The  first  question  asked  in  regard  to  any  newly 
discovered  fact  is,  "  What  use  is  it?"  If  it  does 
not  suggest  some  advantage  in  a  material  way,  it 
is  instantly  discarded  as  useless.  The  constitu- 
tional ingenuity  and  industry  of  the  people  have 
led  them  to  make  many  valuable  discoveries,  and 
to  invent  many  useful  contrivances,  in  every  de- 
partment of  practical  life.  But  their  discoveries 
and  inventions  have  been  left  in  a  primitive  state, 
little  having  been  done  to  develop  or  perfect  them. 
The  discovery  of  the  polarity  of  the  magnet  has 
never  been  applied  to  any  extensive  practical  pur- 
pose. The  invention  of  printing  has  not  been  im- 
proved since  the  days  of  the  Sung  dynasty,  in  the 
twelfth  century  of  our  era ;  and  the  manufacture 
of  gunpowder,  though  a  Chinese  invention,  is  still 

(159) 


l6o  HISTORY   OF   THE   CHINESE. 

in  a  rude  state.  So  it  is  with  all  their  knowledge 
belonging  to  the  arts  and  sciences  generally.  A 
few  examples  illustrating  the  foregoing  observations 
may  here  be  given. 

I.  The  Theory  a7id  Practice  of  Medicine. — The 
Chinese  are  a  very  superstitious  people,  yet  they  do 
not  often  use  incantations  and  charms  as  remedies 
for  disease,  but  employ  physicians.  The  doctors, 
however,  resort  to  many  strange  and  foolish  prac- 
tices to  increase  the  efficiency  of  their  nostrums. 
The  dissection  of  the  human  body  is  never  at- 
tempted even  by  their  boldest  and  most  progres- 
sive surgeons.  They  are  therefore  utterly  igno- 
rant of  anatomy  and  physiology.  They  seem  to 
have  no  idea  of  the  distinction  between  venous  and 
arterial  blood,  nor  between  muscles  and  nerves. 
Theories  in  great  variety  are  furnished  to  account 
for  the  nourishment  of  the  body,  and  the  functions 
of  the  several  organs.  The  pulse  is  studied  wdth 
great  care  as  an  index  to  the  condition  of  the  body, 
and  the  average  doctor  examines  it  with  great  de- 
liberation and  solemnity.  He  believes  there  is  a 
distinct  and  different  pulse  in  every  part  of  the 
body,  and  in  his  examination  of  the  patient  feels 
first  the  pulse  in  one  arm  at  the  wrist,  and  at  two 
points  between  the  wrist  and  the  elbow,  and  in 
several  other  parts  of  the  body.  In  this  manner 
he  proceeds  to  distinguish  twenty-four  different 
kinds  of  pulse.*  They  have  no  idea  of  the  cir- 
culation of  the  blood. 

*Du  Halde,  quoted  by  Davis;  Dr.  Abel, 


THE   SCIENCES   IN   CHINA.  l6l 

The  Chinese  doctors  divide  diseases  and  rem- 
edies into  two  classes,  Jiot  and  cold.  If  there  is 
too  much  heat  in  the  body,  they  use  purgatives 
freely;  if  too  much  cold,  they  employ  hot  medi- 
cines— pepper,  spices,  etc.  They  also  mix  astrol- 
ogy with  their  pathology.  Jupiter  rules  over  the 
liver;  Saturn  over  the  stomach;  Mars  over  the 
heart;  Venus  over  the  lungs;  and  Mercury  over 
the  kidneys. 

Chinese  drug  stores  contain  a  great  variety  of 
simple  medicines,  such  as  gums  and  minerals. 
These  are  sold  in  small  packages,  each  contain- 
ing one  dose,  with  instructions  as  to  the  use  to  be 
made  of  it.  The  people  sometimes  cast  lots  as  to 
what  doctor  they  shall  employ,  and  also  as  to  what 
medicine  they  shall  use  in  cases  where  a  doctor  is 
not  deemed  necessary.  Ginseng  is  found  in  all 
Chinese  drug  stores,  and  is  extensively  used  as  a 
medicine.  It  is  supposed  to  rejuvenate  the  human 
system,  and  is  very  popular  with  old  persons  es- 
pecially. It  grows  in  the  northern  parts  of  Asia, 
and  in  America.  It  is  quite  an  item  in  the  trade 
of  the  United  States  and  China. 

Dr.  Williams  says:  '*  The  practice  of  the  Chi- 
nese is  much  in  advance  of  their  theories."  They 
have  learned  something  from  experience,  and  their 
practical  turn  of  mind  has  enabled  them  to  profit 
by  experience,  so  that  they  can  relieve  ordinary 
**  ailments  "  with  some  skill.  They  use  many  roots 
and  herbs  in  their  practice,  such  as  camphor, 
myrrh,  ginseng,  rhubarb,  gentian,  and  a  great 
11 


l62  HISTORY   OF  THE   CHINESE. 

variety  of  seeds,  leaves,  and  barks.  Scarcely  an}- 
preparation  is  considered  complete  without  gin- 
seng. The  doctors  are  fond  of  using  poultices 
and  plasters  of  all  kinds.  Pills  made  of  tigers' 
bones  are  said  to  be  good  for  weakness  of  any 
kind,  especially  to  inspire  natural  courage.*  The 
hide,  hair,  hoofs,  horns,  and  bones  of  the  stag  are 
also  made  into  large  pills,  which  are  supposed  to 
impart  to  the  patient  the  qualities  which  character- 
ize that  animal. 

Asiatic  cholera  has  been  one  of  the  greatest 
scourges  China  has  ever  suffered.  The  native 
physicians  can  do  little  or  nothing  to  mitigate  its 
severity.  The  smallpox  is  always  in  China,  and 
multitudes  die  of  it  every  year.  Vaccination  has 
been  introduced  by  foreigners,  in  the  eastern  prov- 
inces especially,  and  is  now  used  by  the  natives  to 
some  extent,  though,  as  a  rule,  they  prefer  their 
own  practice  of  inoculation.  This  is  done  by  in- 
serting a  little  cotton  into  the  nostrils  in  which  a 
small  quantity  of  the  virus  of  smallpox  has  been 
placed.  Fevers  are  not  as  common  as  with  us. 
Asthma  is  frequently  met  with.  Consumption, 
agues,  cutaneous  diseases  of  all  kinds,  are  seen 
everywhere,  and  many  loathsome  examples  are 
exhibited  among  the  beggars  on  the  streets.  China 
suffers  with  nearly  all  the  diseases  that  "  flesh  is 
heir  to." 

The  Chinese  have  many  medical  works,  some 

*A  Chinese  proverb  says:  "There  is  a  medicine  for  dis: 
ease,  but  none  for  fate." 


THE   SCIENCES   IN   CHINA.  163 

of  which  show  no  Httle  research  on  the  part  of  the 
authors.  Dr.  WilHams  mentions  the  fact  that  there 
are  over  five  hundred  medical  treatises  in  the  Chi- 
nese language.  Many  of  them,  most  of  them,  would 
be  considered  by  Europeans  entirely  worthless. 

2.  Chinese  Astronomy . — The  Chinese  confound 
astronomy  with  astrology,  and  record  eclipses, 
comets,  etc.,  only  as  astrological  data.  A  native 
writer  on  astronomy,  who  studied  under  Eu- 
ropeans, published  in  1820  a  work  in  which  he 
gives  the  following  description  of  the  heavens: 
'•'  The  heavens  consist  of  ten  concentric  hollow 
spheres,  or  envelopes;  the  first  contains  the  moon's 
orbit;  the  second,  that  of  Mercury;  those  of  Ve- 
nus, the  sun.  Mars,  Jupiter,  Saturn,  and  the  twen- 
ty-eight constellations,  follow  in  order;  the  ninth 
envelopes  and  binds  together  the  eight  interior 
ones,  and  revolves  daily.  The  tenth  is  the  abode 
of  the  celestial  sovereign,  the  great  Ruler,  with  all 
the  gods  and  sages,  where  they  enjoy  eternal  tran- 
quillity." The  author  further  says:  "There  are 
two  north  and  two  south  poles,  those  of  the  equa- 
tor and  those  of  the  ecliptic.  The  poles  of  the 
ecliptic  regulate  all  the  machinery  of  the  heaven- 
ly revolutions,  and  turn  round  unceasingly.  The 
poles  of  the  equator  are  the  pivots  of  the  primitive 
celestial  body,  and  remain  permanently  unmoved. 
What  are  called  the  two  poles,  therefore,  are  not 
stars,  but  two  immovable  points  in  the  north  and 
in  the  south."  * 

^Murray's  China 


164  HISTORY  OF   THE    CHINESE. 

The  five  principal  planets — Mercury,  Venus, 
Mars,  Jupiter,  and  Saturn — with  the  earth,  rule 
over  the  year  and  its  four  seasons,  and  correspond 
with  the  kidneys,  lungs,  heart,  liver,  and  stomach. 
They  are  denoted  by  white,  black,  green,  red,  and 
yellow.  Any  alterations  in  the  sun  announce 
misfortunes  to  the  state  or  its  head,  such  as  re- 
volts, famines,  or  the  death  of  the  emperor. 
When  the  moon  waxes  red,  or  turns  pale,  men 
should  be  in  awe  at  the  unlucky  times  thus  fore- 
tokened. The  sun  is  symbolically  represented  by 
a  raven  surrounded  by  a  circle,  and  the  moon  by 
a  rabbit  on  his  hind  legs  pounding  rice  in  a  mor- 
tar, or  by  a  toad.  There  is  a  legend  of  a  beau- 
tiful woman  who  drank  the  liquor  of  immortality 
and  immediately  ascended  to  the  moon,  where  she 
was  transformed  into  a  toad,  still  to  be  seen  on  the 
face  of  the  lunar  disk.  All  the  stars  are  arranged 
in  constellations,  and  an  emperor  rules  over  them, 
who  resides  at  the  north  pole.  There  is  also  an 
heir  apparent,  with  empresses,  sons  and  daugh- 
ters, in  this  celestial  government.  The  Great 
Dipper  —  called  the  "Northern  Peak" — is  wor- 
shiped as  the  residence  of  the  Fates,  where 
the  duration  of  human  life  and  other  events  are 
fixed. 

The  reader  will  perceive  that  the  Chinese  have 
studied  astronomy  chiefly  for  astrological  pur- 
poses, and  that  of  the  science  of  astronomy  proper 
they  really  know  little  or  nothing.  The  mission- 
aries,  especially   the  early   P.omish    missionaries. 


THE    SCIENCES    IN    CHINA*  165 

introduced  some  knowledge  of  Western  sciences 
into  the  Chinese  Imperial  College,  and  among 
other  things  a  knowledge  of  astronomy.  **  But 
even  with  all  the  aid  they  derived  from  Europeans, 
the  Chinese  seem  to  be  unable  to  advance  in  this 
science  when  left  to  themselves,  and  to  cling  to 
their  superstitions  against  every  evidence,"  says 
an  accepted  authority  on  the  subject.  Some  rem- 
nants of  European  scien*ce  still  linger  in  a  tradi- 
tional form  among  them,  but  have  no  practical 
value. 

The  entire  day  is  divided  by  the  Chinese  into 
twelve  hours,  beginning  with  ii  o'clock  p.m.,  and 
each  one  of  the  hours  is  named  after  one  of  the 
characters  in  the  zodiac.  The  native  method  of 
measuring  time  is  by  what  is  called  a  "  time  stick," 
a  rude  candle  made  of  clay  and  sawdust,  on  which 
are  *' hour  marks."  **As  the  candle  burns,  so 
time  goes."  In  ancient  times  clepsydras  of  va- 
rious forms  w^ere  used  to  measure  time.  There  is 
one  at  Canton,  or  was  some  years  ago.  European 
clocks  and  watches  are  now  pretty  generally  used 
by  the  better  class  of  Chinese  at  the  commercial 
ports. 

3.  Geography. — The  Chinese  are  ignorant  of 
the  form  and  divisions  of  the  globe;  that  is,  the 
uneducated  people  are.  Those  who  have  been 
taught  in  mission  schools,  or  educated  among  for- 
eigners, know  better,  and  these  are  not  included 
in  the  above  statement;  nor  have  I  taken  any  ac- 
count of  such  persons  in  the  preceding  pages,  for 


l66  HISTORY   OF   THE   CHINESE. 

my  purpose  is  to  represent  the  people  of  China  as 
a  body,  having  common  characteristics,  and  not 
those  whose  views  and  characters  have  been  mod- 
ified by  contact  with  our  Western  civiHzation. 

The  average  Chinese  beHeves  that  the  earth  is 
an  immense  plain,  square  in  shape,  around  which 
the  sun,  moon,  and  stars  revolve.  Some  of  their 
ancient  books  so  teach,  and  so  multitudes  of  the 
men  they  call  scholars  sincerely  believe.  Their 
common  maps  are  not  only  erroneous,  but  ex- 
tremely absurd.  They  represent  China  as  occu- 
pying nearly  all  the  land  in  the  world,  while  the 
rest  of  mankind  are  left  to  find  homes  among  the 
islands  that  fringe  their  western  border.  North 
and  South  America,  Africa,  and  Australia  are  en- 
tirely omitted,  while  England,  France,  Holland, 
and  Portugal,  Germany  and  India,  are  arranged 
on  the  western  side  of  China  in  a  series  of  small 
islands  and  headlands.  The  eastern  side  is  sim- 
ilarly garnished  with  islands  representing  Japan, 
Loo-Choo,  Formosa,  Siam,  etc. 

The  Chinese  notions  of  the  inhabitants  of  the 
*'  outside  countries  "  are  still  more  whimsical  and 
silly,  if  possible.  I  quote  the  same  authority  again : 
**  In  some  parts  of  the  earth's  surface  they  imagine 
the  inhabitants  to  be  all  dwarfs,  who  tie  themselves 
together  in  bunches  for  fear  of  being  carried  away 
by  the  eagles ;  in  other  parts  the  inhabitants  are 
all  women ;  and  in  another  kingdom  all  the  people 
have  holes  in  their  breasts  extending  through  their 
bodies,   through   which   they  thrust  a   pole,  when 


THE   SCIENCES   IN   CHINA.  167 

carrying  one  another  from  place  to  place."*  I 
repeat,  lest  some  one  should  misunderstand  me, 
these  absurdities  are  original  Chinese  conceptions, 
not  the  modified  teachings  of  foreigners  garbled 
and  misrepresented  by  the  Chinese,  as  is  often 
done.  We  see  every  now  and  then  a  statement  to 
the  effect  that  the  Chinese  are  as  well  informed  on 
most  subjects  as  the  foreign  missionaries  who  go 
to  China  to  teach  them.  This  is  not  true  of  the 
Chinese  people.  It  may  be  true,  to  some  extent, 
of  those  who  have  been  educated  in  English 
schools  and  colleges,  such  as  the  Anglo-Chinese 
College  at  Shanghai,  and  other  schools  founded 
and  supported  by  Christian  Churches  having  mis- 
sions in  that  field;  but  such  persons  do  not  repre- 
sent the  average  Chinese,  nor  are  they  included 
in  the  general  estimate.  They  are  marked  excep- 
tions to  the  rule. 

4.  The  Chinese  Monetary  System. — The  only 
coin  authorized  by  the  government  is  a  small  cop- 
per piece  called  stein  by  the  natives,  and  cash  by  the 
foreigners.  It  is  thin  and  circular  in  shape,  about 
three-quarters  of  an  inch  in  diameter,  with  a  square 
hole  in  the  middle  for  convenience  in  stringing. 
On  one  side  is  the  name  of  the  reigning  dynasty, 
and  on  the  other  side  the  words  "  current  money." 
Mints  for  coining  this  "cash"  are  established  in 
every  provincial  capital,  under  the  imperial  board 
of  revenue.  Gold  and  silver  are  used  by  weight 
as  bullion.     Spanish  and  South  American  dollars 

*See  Williams's  "Middle  Kingdom,"  Vol.  II.,  p.  155. 


l68  HISTORY   OF  THE   CHINESE. 

are  employed  in  trade,  and  their  value  is  generally 
understood  throughout  the  empire. 

Chartered  banking  companies  do  not  exist,  but 
private  banks  are  common,  especially  in  large 
towns  where  the  necessities  of  business  demand 
some  sort  of  exchange  convenient  and  reliable. 
Paper  money  was  used  by  the  Mongols,  but  for 
some  reason  is  now  unknown  as  a  medium  of 
circulation.  The  Mongol  emperors  of  China,  by 
acts  of  repudiation,  destroyed  all  faith  in  imperial 
honesty,  and  the  government  has  had  little  credit 
among  the  people  since.  This  is  probably  one 
reason  why  paper  money  is  unpopular  with  the 
people  to-day.  Bills  of  exchange,  drawn  by  one 
banker  on  another,  are  extensively  employed  in 
the  domestic  trade  of  the  empire ;  also  promissory 
notes,  and  pawnbroker's  tickets.  The  legal  inter- 
est allowed  on  small  sums  is  three  per  cent,  per 
month,  but  usually  on  large  sums  the  rate  is  from 
twelve  to  fifteen  per  cent,  per  annum. 

5.  Chinese  Military  Science. — On  this  subject 
I  shall  say  little,  because  I  know  but  little,  and 
because  the  Chinese  know  but  little.  Their  un- 
warlike  reputation  has  been  recently  empha- 
sized by  the  war  with  Japan,  in  which  they  suf- 
fered a  most  disastrous  and  humiliating  defeat. 
The  Mongols,  Manchoos,  Huns,  and  Tartars  all 
hold  the  effeminate  "  celestials  "  in  profound  con- 
tempt as  soldiers.  During  the  Taiping  rebellion 
I  witnessed  many  skirmishes  at  Shanghai  between 
the  imperial  troops  and  the  rebels,  and  I  must  say 


THE   SCIENCES   IN   CHINA.  169 

a  more  absurd  display  of  braggadocio  and  coward- 
ice it  would  be  difficult  to  imagine.  The  soldiers 
on  both  sides  were  poorly  equipped  for  serious 
work,  and  the  whole  affair  was  a  miserable  farce, 
little  more  dangerous  than  an  earnest  game  of  foot- 
ball !     Yet  the  Chinese  called  it  war ! 

The  regular  army,  so  called,  is  said  to  amount 
to  more  than  a  million  of  men,  but  in  the  recent 
war  with  Japan  not  half  that  number  was  em- 
ployed. Of  men  China  has  enough,  but  of  sol- 
diers none.  They  are  a  peace-loving  people,  and 
have  conquered  their  conquerors  by  their  superior 
intelligence  and  force  of  character,  and  not  by 
arms.  The  present  rulers  of  China  have  become 
Chinese  in  everything  but  name,  and  so  it  was  with 
the  Mongols  and  Tartars. 

The  Chinese  arms  consist  principally  of  bows 
and  arrows,  spears,  matchlocks,  swords,  and  can- 
non of  various  sizes  and  lengths,  and  of  flags. 
Every  tenth  man  carries  a  iiag.  **  Terrible  as  an 
army  with  banners"  has  a  meaning  in  China. 
Recently  the  government  has  purchased  foreign 
arms,  gunboats,  men-of-war,  and  other  military 
equipments;  but  with  these  I  have  nothing  to  do, 
for  they  are  not  Chinese^  except  in  a  commercial 
sense,  just  as  any  other  article  of  foreign  manu- 
facture purchased  by  the  Chinese  is  their  prop- 
erty. 

The  officers  march  in  the  rear  when  going  into 
battle,  to  prevent  the  soldiers  from  deserting,  and 
to  urge  them  on !     They  march  in  front  when  re- 


170  HISTORY   OF   THE   CHINESE. 

treating  before  the  enemy,  in  order  to  show  their 
men  the  best  way  of  escape !  For  this  statement 
I  cannot  vouch,  though  it  is  not  inconsistent  with 
Chinese  character.  They  are  a  prudent  people, 
and  wisely  avoid  all  unnecessary  exposure  to  dan- 
ger! A  Chinese  army  looks  to  Europeans  very 
much  like  a  mob  of  undrilled  louts  in  petticoats. 
(See  illustration.) 

6.  The  Chinese  have  some  general  knowledge 
of  natural  history,  mineralogy,  arithmetic,  drawing 
and  painting,  music,  and  other  sciences,  but  like 
their  knowledge  of  medicine,  astronomy,  geogra- 
phy, etc.,  it  is  extremely  limited,  and  may  better 
be  called  their  ignorance  than  their  knowledge  of 
these  things.  Of  natural  history  some  Chinese 
scholars  have  made  a  careful  study,  or  perhaps 
I  should  rather  say  some  shrewd  observations. 
Their  country  furnishes  a  vast  variety  of  speci- 
mens for  study  in  every  department  of  natural 
history,  especially  in  botany  and  zoology  and  or- 
nithology. 

The  domestic  animals  in  China  are  not  as  nu- 
merous in  proportion  to  the  population  as  with 
us,  for  obvious  reasons.  The  hog  is  common  in 
all  parts  of  the  empire,  and  its  flesh  constitutes 
the  principal  meat  food  of  the  lower  classes.  The 
wild  boar  is  found  in  some  of  the  western  prov- 
inces, but  not  in  central  China.  As  the  Chinese 
do  not  use  milk  and  butter,  cows  are  met  with  only 
in  the  vicinity  of  the  ports  where  foreigners  reside. 
The  '*  water  buffalo"  is  used  for  agricultural  pur- 


THE   SCIENCES   IN   CHINA.  I^l 

poses.  One  species  of  this  singular  animal  is  very 
small,  and  is  seen  chiefly  in  the  south.  The  buffalo 
of  eastern  and  northern  China  is  a  large,  uncomely 
creature,  much  above  the  average  cow  in  size,  with 
horns  like  a  goat.  It  is  fond  of  the  water,  and  in 
summer  plunges  into  the  canals  and  pools  to  escape 
the  flies  and  mosquitoes.  It  is  a  sluggish  and  very 
tractable  animal,  much  used  for  riding  and  draw- 
ing in  some  parts  of  the  country.  Sheep  are  also 
raised  for  meat,  not  for  their  wool,  as  the  Chinese 
do  not  wear  woolen  clothing. 

Among  the  many  varieties  of  fowls  and  birds  in 
China,  the  gold  and  silver  pheasants  are  conspicu- 
ous. They  are  splendid  specimens  of  the  feathered 
tribes.  It  is  said  that  one  kind,  found  in  the  north 
of  China,  has  tail  feathers  six  feet  long.  I  have 
seen  in  an  aviary  at  Shanghai  (Mr.  Beale's)  two 
of  these  magnificent  birds,  surpassing  in  splendor 
of  plumage  the  celebrated  birds  of  paradise.  The 
country  abounds  in  wild  fowl  of  all  kinds — geese, 
ducks,  pheasants,  partridges,  grouse,  etc.  The  lim- 
its assigned  to  this  chapter  will  not  permit  of  further 
notice  of  the  many  interesting  specimens  belong- 
ing to  this  department  of  natural  history. 


-' / 


CHINESE  carpi:xti:r. 


(172) 


CHINESE  BLACKSMITH. 


CHAPTER  XIV. 
Architecture  of  the  Chinese. 

CHINESE  architecture,  like  everything  else  in 
that  strange  country,  is  unique.  The  orig- 
inal model  was  evidently  the  tent^  for  in  all  their 
public  and  private  buildings,  from  the  emperor's 
palace  to  the  fisherman's  hut,  the  resemblance  to 
this  type  prevails.  There  are  no  indications  that 
any  effort  has  been  made  to  develop  this  simple 
model  into  anything  higher,  or  to  erect  any  grand 
and  imposing  buildings  after  the  Hindoo  or  Eu- 
ropean style.  The  type  is  not  only  primitive,  but 
the  material,  as  a  rule,  is  inferior,  and  the  w^ork- 
manship  clumsy.  The  structures  are  consequently 
generally  of  a  fragile  and  unsubstantial  character. 
These  remarks  do  not  apply  to  all  the  buildings, 
however,  but  to  the  ordinary  dwellings  of  the  peo- 
ple, which,  of  course,  constitute  the  principal  part 
of  the  architecture  in  city  and  country.  There 
are  no  ancient  monuments  except,  perhaps,  a  few 
temples  and  pagodas.  There  are  no  great  historic 
ruins.  The  Great  Wall  of  China  may  be  an  excep- 
tion to  this  remark,  for  it  was  built  B.C.  220,  and 
is — much  of  it — in  ruins.  China  has  nothing,  how- 
ever, to  compare  with  the  pyramids  of  Egypt  or 
the  ruins  of  Babylon.    The  Chinese  have  not  trav- 

(173) 


I74  HISTORY  OF  THE   CHINESE. 

eled  in  other  lands,  or,  if  they  have,  they  have 
kept  their  eyes  shut.  Their  absurd  vanity  has  led 
them  to  despise  all  other  people  as  uncultivated 
barbarians.  One  of  their  writers  thus  congratu- 
lates himself:  "I  felicitate  myself  that  I  was  born 
in  China,  and  constantly  think  how  different  it 
would  have  been  if  I  had  been  born  beyond  the 
seas  in  some  remote  part  of  the  earth,  where  the 
people,  far  removed  from  the  converting  maxims 
of  the  ancient  kings,  and  ignorant  of  the  domestic 
relations,  are  clothed  with  the  leaves  of  plants,  eat 
wood,  and  dwell  in  the  wilderness,  and  live  in  the 
holes  of  the  earth.  Though  born  in  the  world  in 
such  a  condition,  I  should  not  have  been  different 
from  the  beasts  of  the  field.  But  now,  happily,  I 
have  been  born  in  the  Middle  Kingdom.  I  have 
a  house  to  live  in;  have  food  and  drink,  and  ex- 
cellent furniture;  felicity  is  mine."  This  self-sat- 
isfied egotist  but  voices  the  common  sentiment  of 
his  fellow-countrymen.  We  are  the  barbarians. 
How  could  they  expect  to  learn  anything  from  us? 
In  the  matter  of  architecture  they  have  certainly 
learned  nothing. 

The  dwelling  houses  of  the  Chinese  are  gener- 
ally only  one  story  high,  with  no  cellars,  base- 
ments, or  attics.  The  building  materials  are  bricks, 
matting,  wood,  and  sifted  earth  made  into  a  kind 
of  concrete.  The  roof  is  made  of  brick  tiling. 
Where  stone  is  abundant,  the  foundations  of  the 
houses  are  made  of  it,  and  are  usually  very  sub- 
stantial.    In  many  places,  however,  as  at  Shang- 


ARCHITECTURE.  I75 

hai,  stone  is  too  expensive  for  such  use,  and  the 
houses  rest  on  the  soil,  the  whole  structure  being 
supported  by  a  wooden  framework,  which,  like 
a  skeleton,  furnishes  support  and  gives  shape  to 
the  building.  The  walls  are  made  of  bricks  filled 
in  between  the  upright  posts,  which  support  the 
roof  of  the  house.  The  fronts  of  the  dwelling 
houses  have  no  openings  except  the  doors,  with 
now  and  then  a  small  square  window  glazed  with 
oyster  shells.  This  monotonous  front  is  unrelieved 
by  porticoes,  steps,  or  front  yards.  The  better  class 
of  houses  have  inside  the  outer  or  street  door  a 
small  quadrangle,  where  compan}^  is  received. 

Although  the  general  arrangement  of  the  dwell- 
ing houses  is  substantially  the  same,  yet  climate 
and  other  causes  require  some  modifications.  In 
the  southern  and  more  temperate  parts  of  the  em- 
pire no  provision  is  made  for  warming  the  houses, 
but  in  the  colder  regions,  as  at  Peking,  ranges  and 
braziers  are  used  for  the  purpose  of  heating  the 
bedrooms.  In  the  less  frigid  parts  of  the  country 
the  addition  of  another  garment  is  made  to  supply 
the  place  of  artificial  heat.  The  number  of  jackets 
worn  indicates  the  degrees  of  cold  or  heat — the  com- 
mon thermometer;  so  many  ''jackets  cold  "  means 
so  many  degrees.  The  people  use  foot-stoves  and 
hand-stoves  when  the  weather  is  very  cold.  These 
stoves  are  often  very  handsome.  They  are  kept 
warm  by  a  preparation  of  pulverized  charcoal, 
which  burns  slowly  and  gives  out  heat  steadily. 
They  are  very  convenient  and  comfortable. 


176  HISTORY   OF   THE    CHINESE. 

The  houses  of  the  very  poor  are,  as  a  rule,  dark, 
dirty,  and  without  floors — utterly  comfortless.  The 
whole  family  often  live,  eat,  and  sleep  in  a  single 
room,  with  the  pigs,  dogs,  and  chickens.  The 
furniture  consists,  perhaps,  of  a  few  broken  dish- 
es, a  rickety  stool  or  chair,  and  miserable  substi- 
tutes for  beds — a  little  straw  and  a  few  rags.  The 
homes  of  the  poor  are  always  open  to  the  gaze  of 
the  passer-by,  and  to  the  intrusion  of  inquisitive 
strangers.  I  have  been  in  many  such  houses,  but 
only  once  was  I  permitted  to  enter  the  home  of  a 
rich  family,  and  then  only  as  far  as  the  library. 
I  saw  only  the  male  members  of  the  family.  I  can- 
not therefore  describe  the  interior  of  that  home, 
for  I  did  not  see  it.  The  masonry  of  the  Chinese 
is  showy,  but  unsubstantial,  and  when  neglected 
soon  falls  into  ruinous  decay.  It  requires  constant 
repairs,  and  is  therefore  expensive.  When  new  it 
looks  rather  pretty,  but  a  few  seasons  wear  off  the 
flimsy  tinsel,  and  it  looks  old  and  shabby. 

Public  buildings  and  business  houses  necessarily 
differ  in  style  and  arrangement  from  the  dwelling 
houses.  Temples  and  assembly  halls  are  almost 
the  only  public  edifices  in  China,  except  the  gov- 
ernment buildings,  in  which  the  mandarins  have 
their  offices.  The  assembly  halls  resemble  in  gen- 
eral appearance  the  warehouses,  having  one  large 
room  for  public  meetings.  It  is  said  there  are 
more  than  a  hundred  in  the  city  of  Canton,  and  a 
corresponding  number  in  all  the  cities  of  the  em- 
pire.    All  the  dwelling  houses,  halls,  stores,  and 


y  ARCHITECTURE.  1 77 

shops  pay  a  ground  rent  to  the  government,  the 
amount  of  the  tax  being  regulated  by  the  locality, 
size,  and  value  of  the  land  occupied. 

Taverns  are  numerous,  but  do  not  compare  w^ith 
our  Western  hotels  in  size  or  accommodations. 
They  are  caravansaries  rather  than  inns  or  hotels, 
places  where  the  traveler,  who  carries  his  own 
bedding  and  provision,  may  spend  a  night.  Board- 
ing houses,  as  they  exist  in  Western  cities,  are  un- 
known in  China.  Grog  shops,  gin  palaces,  or  sa- 
loons, distinct  from  the  restaurant,  do  not  exist. 
The  Chinese  drink  "  wine,"  a  liquor  distilled  from 
rice.  It  is  taken  at  meals,  and  is  always  swallowed 
hot,  like  our  preparation  of  coffee  and  tea.  The 
Chinese  moralists  have  always  condemned  wine- 
drinking  as  a  vice,  and  drunkenness  is  not  com- 
mon among  any  class.  Opium-smoking  is  the  na- 
tional form  of  intemperance,  and  opium  shops  are 
as  common  in  China  as  drinking  saloons  are  in 
our  country.  *'  Tea  shops,"  where  at  any  time, 
for  a  few  mills,  you  can  get  a  cup  of  the  refresh- 
ing beverage,  exist  in  all  parts  of  the  city  and 
country,  and  are  always  thronged. 

No  picture  of  a  Chinese  landscape  is  complete 
without  one  or  more  fagodas.  These  are  so  fa- 
miliar to  the  eye  of  the  reader,  as  represented  in 
our  geographies,  that  a  description  is  unnecessary. 
They  are  connected  with  Buddhism,  and  accord- 
ing to  the  superstitions  of  that  sect  bring  good 
luck  to  the  city  and  surrounding  country  as  far 
as  they  can  be  seen.  They  are  therefore  usually 
12 


1 78  HISTORY   OF   THE    CHINESE.  % 

placed  on  some  elevation,  the  higher  the  better, 
and  so  protect  a  large  radius.  They  are  strongly 
built,  and  are  the  only  architectural  monuments  of 
any  great  antiquity  in  China.  The  word  fagoda 
is  a  word  brought  from  India,  and  originally  meant 
a  temple,  but  it  is  used  by  foreigners  to  designate 
the  Chinese  tower.  The  native  word  for  pagoda 
in  China  is  iah.  It  is  not  a  temple,  but,  as  above 
stated,  is  intended  in  some  way  to  promote  good 
luck.  It  is  an  ornament  to  the  landscape,  whatever 
else  it  may  be.  The  great  porcelain  tower,  or  pa- 
goda, at  Nanking,  destroyed  by  the  Taiping  in- 
surgents in  1855,  was  one  of  the  most  unique  and 
beautiful  structures  in  the  world. 

The  Chinese  have  built  many  bridges  across 
rivers,  lakes,  and  mountain  gorges,  but  my  limits 
will  permit  only  a  mention  of  the  fact.  There  is 
a  bridge  of  ninety  arches  near  Hangchow.  I 
remember  to  have  seen  one  of  fifty-three  arches. 
The  Chinese  built  suspension  bridges  at  an  early 
day,  long  before  one  had  been  erected  in  the 
West.  They  are  said  to  be  the  first  people  to  use 
iron  in  the  construction  of  bridges. 

The  Chinese  have  made  little  improvement  in 
the  art  of  military  fortifications  for  centuries,  and 
are  therefore  very  far  behind  the  times,  as  the 
recent  war  with  Japan  abundantly  demonstrated. 
China  has  probably  learned  some  things  concern- 
ing the  arts  of  modern  warfare  during  the  last  few 
months.  She  has  certainly  paid  well  for  the  les- 
son, whether  she  profits  by  it  or  not. 


CHAPTER  XV. 
The  Dress  of  the  Chinese. 

THE  full  dress  of  the  Chinese,  both  of  the  men 
and  women,  when  you  have  once  become  ac- 
customed to  it,  is  not  displeasing.  It  is  in  a  gen- 
eral way  commodious  and  graceful,  warm  in  the 
winter  and  reasonably  cool  in  the  summer.  The 
shaven  crown  of  the  men,  with  the  long  braided 
cue,  and  the  cramped  feet  of  the  women,  al- 
ways offend  the  taste  of  Western  people.  They 
are  essentially  ugly,  for  they  are  unnatural  de- 
formities. The  Chinese,  however,  affect  to  admire 
them,  notwithstanding  they  are  really  badges  of 
inferiority ;  the  cue  being  the  sign  of  political  sub- 
jugation, and  the  cramped  feet  of  the  women  a 
sign  of  their  social  and  domestic  servitude.  In 
this,  **  they  glory  in  their  shame." 

Fashions  in  dress  exist  in  China  as  in  our  own 
country,  but  they  do  not  change  so  often.  The 
general  style  of  the  present  time  has  not  changed 
for  centuries,  and  garments  of  fur  or  silk  are 
handed  down  for  generations,  never  being  aban- 
doned because  out  of  fashion.  I  once  had  a 
teacher  in  China  who  wore,  with  pride,  an  outer 
garment  which  belonged  to  his  grandfather.  The 
teacher  was  then  himself  an  old  man,  and  his  son 

(179) 


i8o 


HISTORY   OF   THE    CHINESE. 


was  looking  forward  to  the  time  when  the  ancient 
tunic  would  become  his  property,  and  perhaps  de- 
scend to  his  grandson.  The  fabrics  most  worn  by 
the  Chinese  are  silk,  cotton,  and  linen  for  summer, 
with  the  addition  of  skins  and  fur  in  winter;  wool- 
en cloth  is  used  sparingl}^,  and  is  not  manufactured 
by  the  Chinese.     Leather  is  used  in  some  parts  of 


CHINESE  TAILOR. 


the  empire  for  the  soles  of  shoes,  but  felt  is  more 
common.  The  shoes  worn  by  laborers  appear 
very  clumsy  to  a  foreigner,  and  are  stiff  and  heavy. 
The  women  wear  shoes  made  of  silk  with  felt  soles, 
and  of  a  ridiculously  small  size. 

The  chief  articles  of  dress  worn  by  the  Chinese 
men  are  inner  and  outer  tunics  of  various  lengths, 


THE   DRESS   OF  THE   CHINESE.  l8l 

made  of  cotton  or  silk,  reaching  below  the  loins, 
frequently  extending  to  the  feet.  The  lapel  folds 
over  the  breast  and  is  fastened  on  the  left  side. 
The  neck  is  left  uncovered.  The  sleeves,  much 
wider  and  longer  than  the  arms,  have  no  cuffs  or 
facings,  and  are  used  for  pockets.  It  is  astonish- 
ing how  many  articles  a  Chinaman  can  stow  away 
in  the  sleeves  of  his  dress.  In  robes  of  ceremony 
the  ends  of  the  sleeves  are  cut  to  resemble  a 
horse's  hoof.  The  lower  part  of  the  body  is  cov- 
ered by  a  pair  of  loose  trousers  made  of  silk  or 
satin,  with  cloth  stockings  reaching  to  the  knees. 
In  winter  leggings  are  added  to  keep  the  lower 
limbs  comfortable.  The  thick  felt  soles  of  shoes 
are  intended  to  keep  the  feet  dry  and  warm  in  the 
absence  of  fire  ;  not  for  ornament,  certainly.  One 
writer  has  said,  speaking  of  their  shoes,  that  '*  the 
Chinese  carry  the  floors  of  their  houses  on  the  soles 
of  their  feet." 

The  ancient  Chinese  suffered  their  hair  to  grow 
long,  and  bound  it  in  a  neat  coil  on  top  of  the 
head.  The  present  style  of  shaving  the  head 
and  wearing  the  cue  was  imposed  upon  them  by 
their  conquerors,  the  Manchoo  Tartars.  The  head 
is  shaved  to  the  crown,  and  the  hair  carefully 
braided  in  a  single  plait  behind.  The  Chinese 
hat  indicates  the  literary  grade  or  official  rank  of 
the  wearer.  The  head  is  usually  covered  !n  win- 
ter by  a  silk  skullcap,  or  felt  hat  of  peculiar  shape. 
Most  men  go  bareheaded  in  summer,  especially  in 
the  southern  provinces.     Outdoor   laborers  wear 


I02  HISTORY   OF  THE   CHINESE. 

in  summer  an  umbrella-shaped  hat,  made  of  bam- 
boo, and  very  large.  It  is  a  good  protection  from 
the  fierce  heat  of  the  sun.  Head  coverings,  how- 
ever, vary  in  different  parts  of  the  empire  accord- 
ing to  climate,  taste,  or  convenience. 

The  dress  of  the  women  in  China,  like  that  of 
the  men,  does  not  change  with  the  phases  of  the 
moon,  but  remains  substantially  the  same  through 
many  generations.  The  fashion  is  sure  to  last  as 
long  as  the  gown.  The  dresses  of  the  common 
people,  men  and  women,  resemble  each  other  so 
much  that  a  stranger  is  at  a  loss  to  distinguish  one 
from  the  other.  For  this  reason  I  shall  not  dwell 
upon  the  subject  of  female  dress.  Besides,  I  have 
neither  the  information  nor  the  genius  to  discuss 
successfully  so  delicate  and  difficult  a  subject. 
There  are  differences,  of  course,  between  the 
dresses  of  the  men  and  the  women,  which,  on 
better  acquaintance,  become  evident  enough. 
The  women  seldom  wear  white,  blue  being  their 
favorite  color.  The  headdress  of  married  fe- 
males is  very  becoming.  No  caps,  bonnets,  hoods, 
or  veils  are  worn  abroad;  a  light  umbrella  is  used 
to  protect  them  from  the  sun.  Bangles,  bracelets, 
and  earrings  are  worn  by  all  classes,  more  as  am- 
ulets to  ward  off  evil  influences  than  as  ornaments. 

The  cramping  of  the  feet  of  female  children  is 
one  of  the  strangest  customs  in  China.  There  is 
a  difference  of  opinion  among  writers  on  the  sub- 
ject as  to  the  origin  of  this  absurd  custom.  Some 
say  that  it  arose  from  a  desire  to  flatter  a  popular 


THE   DRESS    OF   THE    CHINESE. 


183 


empress  of  China  who  had  dub  feet.  Others  say 
that  it  gradually  came  into  use  from  the  great  de- 
sire among  the  women  to  have  small  feet.  Again 
it  is  said  that  it  was  imposed  upon  them  by  their 
husbands  to  keep  them  from  gadding  about.  We 
doubt  this.     Women  are  not  so  easily  **  imposed 


CHINESE    SHOI  MAKER. 


Upon"  by  their  husbands,  even  in  China.  When 
the  Manchoo  Tartars  took  possession  of  China, 
before  they  had  really  subdued  all  the  provinces, 
they  ordered  the  men  in  China  to  have  their  heads 
shaved  and  wear  the  cue,  as  a  sign  of  allegiance 
to  the  new  dynasty,  on  penalty  of  death;  and  that 


Of  The 


UNiv; 


^^%lX- 


184  HISTORY  OF   THE   CHINESE. 

the  women  change  the  manner  of  fastening  their 
outer  tunics.  The  men,  it  is  said,  obeyed  the  or- 
der promptly;  but  the  women  obstinately  refused, 
and  though  many  of  them  were  put  to  death,  they 
would  not  yield,  and  continued  to  fasten  their 
dresses  as  their  grandmothers  did,  and  as  every 
Chinese  woman  does  to-day.  Whatever  be  the 
facts  as  to  the  history  of  cramping  the  feet,  I  take 
it  the  women  adopted  the  practice  voluntarily.  It 
is  certainly  a  very  extraordinary  custom,  and  one 
for  which  it  is  impossible  to  see  any  good  reason. 
It  must  be  very  painful;  it  disfigures  the  person, 
renders  walking  difficult,  and  has  no  compensating 
benefits ;  yet  the  Chinese  women  adhere  obstinately 
to  the  practice.  I  have  seen  grown  women,  who 
were  mothers,  wearing  shoes  not  more  than  three 
inches  long.  They  could  not  walk  with  any  ease 
or  grace.  Many  cannot  even  hobble  along  with- 
out assistance,  yet  they  not  only  endure  the  pain 
and  inconvenience  themselves,  but  inflict  the  hor- 
rid custom  upon  their  daughters  while  children. 

The  Chinese  women  use  cosmetics  to  beautify 
their  faces,  but  really  and  practically  to  the  serious 
injury  of  the  skin.  When  in  full  dress,  the  face 
is  entirely  covered  with  white  paint,  except  the 
cheeks  and  lips,  which  are  touched  with  rouge. 
This  gives  the  countenance  an  unnatural  appear- 
ance, as  if  it  had  been  whitewashed.  The  belle  is 
described  as  having  *'  cheeks  like  almond  flowers, 
lips  like  the  peach  bloom,  a  waist  as  the  willow 
leaf,  eyes  bright  as  dancing  ripples  in  the  sun,  and 


THE  DRESS   OF  THE   CHINESE.  185 

footsteps  like  the  lotus  flower."  An  American 
writer  thus  describes  a  well-dressed  Chinese  gen- 
tleman: "  He  wears  by  his  side  a  variety  of  ac- 
couterments,  which  strike  a  stranger  as  being  of 
a  warlike  character,  but  on  closer  inspection  prove 
to  be  very  peaceful  appendages.  A  worked  silk 
sheath  incloses  a  fan ;  a  small  leather  bag,  not 
unlike  a  cartouch  box,  suspended  to  the  belt,  sup- 
plies flint  and  steel  for  lighting  his  pipe ;  and  the 
tobacco  is  carried  in  an  embroidered  purse  or 
pouch."  Although  thus  arrayed,  and  easily  mis- 
taken for  a  walking  armory,  he  is  one  of  the  most 
harmless  creatures  of  his  kind  in  the  land.  He  is 
simply  a  well-dressed  Chinaman. 


STREET   RESTAURANT. 


(186) 


CHAPTER  XVI. 
Diet  of  the  Chinese. 

THE  Chinese  are  not  cannibals,  nor  are  they 
wild  savages  eating  their  food  raw.  They 
know  how  to  cook  and  how  to  eat.  Tlieir  fondness 
for  puppies,  cats,  rats,  snakes,  etc.,  has  been  great- 
ly exaggerated.  In  some  provinces  in  the  south,  and 
it  may  be  in  other  parts  of  the  empire,  such  crea- 
tures are  used  for  food,  but  in  eastern  China,  about 
Shanghai,  I  never  saw  or  heard  of  such  a  thing. 
Men  are  seen  on  the  streets  of  Shanghai  with  rats 
in  baskets,  and,  like  the  common  hucksters,  have 
a  peculiar  cry;  but  they  are  rat-catchers,  and  not 
rat-sellers.  They  will  clear  your  house  of  rats  in 
a  short  time  for  a  few  cents,  but  they  do  not  eat 
rats,  nor  sell  them  to  other  people  to  be  eaten.  A 
stranger,  seeing  one  of  these  '*  rat-catchers  "  pass- 
ing along  the  street,  and  hearing  his  cry,  and  be- 
ing ignorant  of  his  language,  naturally  supposes 
he  wishes  to  sell  his  rats;  and  for  what  purpose,  if 
not  for  food?  Dr.  Williams  says  of  Canton:  '*A 
few  kittens  and  puppies  are  sold  alive  in  baskets, 
mewing  and  yelping  as  if  in  anticipation  of  their 
fate,  or  from  pain  caused  by  pinching  and  hand- 
ling them,"  etc.  It  is  true,  therefore,  that  some 
Chinese  do  eat  rats,  kittens,  and  puppies,  but  such 
food  is  by  no  means  common. 

(187) 


I<55  HISTORY   OF   THE   CHINESE. 

The  common  diet  of  the  Chinese  is  sufficient  in 
variety,  in  wholesomeness,  and  in  quantity  to  fur- 
nish a  very  comfortable  menu.  The  method  of 
preparing  their  food  does  not  always  please  a  for- 
eign palate;  neither  does  our  method  please  the 
Chinese  taste.  Our  cheese,  for  instance,  they  can- 
not tolerate  for  a  moment;  and  so  also  of  our  but- 
ter, and  other  dishes.  The  free  use  of  vegetable 
oil  in  the  preparation  of  most  Chinese  dishes  is 
offensive  to  foreigners.  Every  nation  has  its  own 
method  of  cooking  food,  building  houses,  making 
clothes,  and  in  these  matters  the  Chinese  have 
equal  rights  with  the  rest  of  mankind. 

The  proportion  of  animal  food  used  by  the  Chi- 
nese is  perhaps  less  than  in  most  countries  cover- 
ing the  same  degrees  of  latitude.  Of  course  the 
quality  as  well  as  the  quantity  consumed  by  a  family 
depends  upon  the  means  of  supply.  The  rich  may 
have  anything  the  market  can  furnish ;  the  poor 
must  be  content  with  what  their  limited  finances  can 
afford.  A  Chinese  table  seems  to  a  foreigner  poor- 
ly supplied,  with  no  bread,  butter,  or  milk.  Rice 
is  always  present.  Tea  is  used  in  great  quantities 
by  all  classes,  and  is  always  taken  hot  with  no  su- 
gar or  cream,  and  a  weak  decoction  is  preferred. 

The  Chinese  have  a  long  list  of  culinary  vege- 
tables. Many  sorts  of  peas  and  beans  are  culti- 
vated. They  have  a  peculiar  dish,  very  popular 
with  the  people,  called  "bean  curd."  In  the  lat- 
itude favorable  to  their  growth  cabbage,  kale,  cau- 
liflower, cress,  lettuce,  spinach,  celery,  dandelion. 


DIET   OF  THE   CHINESEo  189 

sweet  basil,  purslane,  clover,  onions,  pumpkins, 
squashes,  turnips,  eggplant,  melons  of  all  kinds, 
sweet  potatoes,  cucumbers,  water-chestnuts,  gin- 
ger, mustard,  radishes,  garlic,  leeks,  chives,  etc., 
are  raised  by  farmers  and  gardeners  in  great  quan- 
tities. Irish  potatoes  and  Indian  maize  have  been 
introduced  into  China  within  the  last  half  century. 

Most  of  the  fruits  common  in  the  tropics  and  in 
the  temperate  zones  are  found  in  China.  The 
shaddock,  plantain,  and  persimmon  are  common. 
The  persimmon  is  a  luscious  fruit,  several  times 
as  large  as  in  this  country.  The  pomegranate, 
mango,  custard  apple,  pineapple,  breadfruit,  fig, 
guava,  olive,  grape,  etc.,  are  abundant  in  their 
several  localities.  Chestnuts,  walnuts,  filberts,  and 
almonds  are  the  most  common  nuts.  The  black- 
berry, strawberry,  raspberry,  arbutus,  and  cran- 
berry are  found  in  several  of  the  provinces.  The 
Chinese  have  long  known  how  to  preserve  fruits 
and  to  pickle  vegetables.  The  common  beverages 
of  the  Chinese  are  tea  and  whisky,  and  both  are 
taken  warm;  cold  water  is  seldom  drank,  because 
supposed  to  be  unwholesome.  Beer,  cider,  por- 
ter, wine,  and  brandy  are  unknown,  except  as  in- 
troduced by  foreigners.  Coffee  and  chocolate  are 
never  used. 

Beef  is  not  a  common  meat,  chiefly  because  the 
government  protects  the  ox  for  the  use  of  the  farm- 
er, and  also  because  of  the  Buddhist  prejudice 
against  killing  such  a  noble  animal.  Mutton  is 
rare  and  expensive.     The  meat  of  the  water  buf- 


190  HISTORY   OF   THE   CHINESE. 

falo  and  of  the  goat  are  seldom  eaten.  More  pork 
is  eaten  than  any  other  kind  of  meat.  Few  fam- 
ilies are  so  poor  as  not  to  have  a  pig.  Horse  flesh 
and  venison  are  now  and  then  seen  in  the  markets. 
Pork,  fowls,  and  fish  are  staple  articles  of  diet. 
Ducks,  chickens,  and  geese  are  abundant.  The 
turkey  is  not  found  in  China.  Pheasants,  grouse, 
and  quail  are  plentiful  in  some  parts  of  the  coun- 
try. Frogs  are  eaten  by  all  classes.  A  writer 
thus  describes  a  curious  way  of  catching  frogs: 
'*A  young  and  tender  jumper  is  caught  and  tied 
to  a  fish  line  and  bobbed  up  and  down  in  the  rice 
field  where  the  old  croakers  are  wont  to  harbor. 
As  soon  as  one  sees  the  young  frog  he  makes  a 
plunge  at  him  and  swallows  him  whole,  where- 
upon he  is  immediately  landed  in  the  fisherman's 
basket,  and  so  loses  his  lunch  and  his  life  togeth- 
er, for  the  young  frog  is  rescued  from  his  maw 
and  used  again  as  bait." 

The  eggs  of  chickens  and  ducks  are  hatched 
artificially  in  every  part  of  the  empire.  The  proc- 
ess of  hatching  is  simple,  only  requiring  constant 
attention.  Sheds  are  erected  for  the  purpose,  in 
which  is  a  number  of  baskets  well  plastered  with 
mud,  each  one  so  placed  over  a  fire  that  the  heat 
shall  be  conveyed  equally  to  the  eggs  through  tiles 
placed  in  the  bottom  of  the  basket,  and  retained 
by  a  close  cover.  The  heat  is  raised  to  about  one 
hundred  Fahrenheit  and  continued  for  four  or  five 
days.  The  eggs  are  then  taken  out  and  each  one 
carefully  examined  in  a  strong  light.     Those  *'  ad- 


DIET    OF   THE    CHINESE.  I9I 

died"  are  left  out,  and  the  sound  ones  replaced 
in  the  basket,  and  kept  for  ten  days  longer,  when 
they  are  placed  on  shelves  in  the  center  of  the 
shed  and  covered  w^ith  cotton  and  felt  for  four- 
teen days  longer.  At  the  end  of  twenty-eight  days 
the  little  ducks  and  chickens  break  the  shell  and 
come  forth.  They  are  immediately  sold  to  per- 
sons whose  business  it  is  to  feed  and  care  for 
them  until  ready  for  the  market.  Pigeons  are 
raised  to  some  extent,  their  eggs  being  used  for 
soups.  The  wild  duck,  teal,  wild  goose,  plover, 
snipe,  partridge,  are  all  eaten  by  the  Chinese.  If 
the  Chinese  eat  many  sorts  of  birds  and  beasts 
that  live  on  the  land,  the  variety  of  fish  and  other 
productions  of  the  water  which  they  consume  is 
still  greater.  Nothing  comes  amiss.  The  right  to 
fish  in  running  water  is  open  to  all,  and  besides 
this  the  lakes  and  seas  are  free.  Artificial  ponds, 
pools,  tanks,  etc.,  are  used  for  rearing  fish  by 
private  individuals  and  by  companies.  Crabs, 
cuttle  fish,  sharks,  turtles,  prawns,  crawfish,  ra3^s, 
and  shrimps  are  all  used  for  food  by  rich  and  poor. 
I  have  thus  dwelt  upon  the  diet  of  the  Chinese 
because  the  most  common  question  asked  me  after 
m}^  return  from  China  was,  "  What  do  the  Chinese 
eat?"  or,  *'  How  do  the  millions  of  Chinese  man- 
age to  obtain  food  enough  for  all?  "  Of  course  it 
is  a  serious  question  among  the  masses  in  all  coun- 
tries, and  especially  where  the  population  is  so 
dense  as  in  China.  To  feed  four  hundred  mil- 
lions of  people  so  that  everyone  shall  have  a  little, 


192'  HISTORY  OF   THE    CHINESE. 

requires  an  amount  of  food  greatly  beyond  our 
powers  of  computation.  An  American  missionary 
some  years  ago  made  an  estimate  of  the  amount 
of  rice  necessary  to  furnish  every  man,  woman, 
and  child  in  China  one  meal,  and  found  that  all 
the  rice  raised  in  the  United  States  would  barely 
be  sufficient,  allowing  one  pint  of  cooked  rice  to 
each  person ! 

The  culinary  art  has  not  been  cultivated  in  Chi- 
na with  any  great  success.  The  principal  dishes 
are  stews  of  various  kinds,  in  which  garlic  and 
grease  are  more  abundant  than  pepper  and  salt. 
Meats  are  seldom  baked  or  roasted,  owing  partly, 
no  doubt,  to  the  greater  amount  of  fuel  required 
to  bake  than  to  fry.  Fuel  is  ver}^  expensive  in 
many  parts  of  the  empire,  hence  the  poor  can 
better  afford  to  buy  the  little  meat  they  use,  al- 
ready cooked,  than  to  cook  it  themselves.  The 
articles  of  kitchen  furniture  in  a  dwelling  are  few 
and  simple.  An  iron  boiler  shaped  like  a  wash  ba- 
sin, for  stewing  or  frying,  a  portable  earthen  fur- 
nace, and  two  or  three  different-shaped  earthen- 
ware pots  for  boiling  water  or  vegetables,  consti- 
tute the  whole  culinary  establishment  of  thousands 
of  households.  Meats  or  vegetables  are  hashed  or 
cut  into  small  blocks  before  being  brought  to  the 
table.  They  do  not  use  knives  and  forks  in  eating, 
as  we  do,  but  manage  to  convey  all  kinds  of  food 
to  their  mouths  by  the  "chopsticks" — two  small 
sticks,  each  abut  the  size  and  shape  of  an  ordinary 
lead  pencil. 


DIET   OF  THE   CHINESE.  I93 

The  manner  of  eating  their  food  differs  as  much 
among  the  Chinese  as  among  other  people.  With 
the  humble  poor  the  question  is  how  to  provide 
food,  and  there  is  very  little  form  or  ceremony  in 
preparing  or  eating  it.  Rice  is  the  *'  staff  of  life." 
The  poor  seldom  taste  meat;  sometimes  a  small 
piece  of  fish  is  placed  in  the  bowl  of  rice;  some- 
times vegetables  are  added,  to  give  flavor  to  the 
dish ;  a  little  garlic  or  piece  of  onion  very  greatly 
increases  the  relish.  As  a  rule  the  Chinese  do  not 
eat  early  in  the  day;  usually  about  eleven  o'clock, 
and  again  at  night.  They  are  a  social  and  sensual 
people,  and  the  pleasures  of  the  table  form  a  prin- 
cipal part  of  their  enjoyment  where  they  have  the 
means  to  gratify  the  appetite  to  the  full.  They 
are  not  convivial — that  is,  intoxicants  are  not  used 
to  excess;  they  may  be  gluttons,  but  they  are  not 
drunkards.  Private  meals  and  public  feasts  among 
the  wealthy  are  both  dull  and  tedious.  The  intel- 
lect is  subordinate  to  the  appetite.  There  is  no 
"feast of  reason"  nor  ''flow  of  soul"  at  a  Chinese 
dinner.  There  may  be  * '  small  talk  ' '  and  common- 
place twaddle  enough,  but  the  social  vivacity,  wit, 
and  humor  that  characterize  fashionable  dinings 
with  us  are  unknown  among  the  higher  classes  in 
China.  There  are  no  ladies  present,  and  therefore 
the  principal  charm  of  a  social  meeting  with  us  is 
conspicuously  absent  at  a  Chinese  feast.  The  men 
are  simply  ''animals  feeding,"  though  with  much 
parade  of  etiquette  and  elaborate  formality. 

The  beggars  in  China,  like  mendicants  in  all 
13 


194  HISTORY   OF  THE   CHINESE. 

countries,  '*live  from  hand  to  mouth,"  and  are 
often  driven  by  extreme  hunger  to  eat  the  vilest 
refuse:  cats,  dogs,  rats,  snakes,  lizzards,  slugs, 
decayed  meats  and  vegetables,  etc.  Extremes  of 
wealth  and  poverty  are  often  seen  in  painful  con- 
trast in  China. 


(195) 


CHAPTER  XVII. 
Agriculture  in  China. 

AGRICULTURE  occupies  the  first  place  with 
the  Chinese  among  the  industrial  arts,  and  it 
is  annually  honored  by  the  government  when  the 
emperor  becomes,  for  the  hour,  a  practical  farm- 
er, and  holds  the  plow.*  This  ceremony  is  ob- 
served with  much  imperial  pomp,  in  order  to  im- 
press not  only  the  farm  laborer  with  the  dignity 
and  importance  of  his  vocation,  but  to  remind  the 
whole  nation  of  the  place  which  agriculture  holds 
as  the  primary  source  of  supply  for  human  wants, 
and  that  from  which  national  wealth  and  comfort 
are  derived.  The  simplest  form  of  manual  labor 
is  thus  selected  as  representative  of  all  labor,  and 
the  highest  honor  bestowed  upon  it.  One  Chi- 
nese writer  has  classified  the  different  occupations 
thus:  **i.  The  scholcu' :  because  mind  is  superior  to 
matter,  and  it  is  the  intellect  that  distinguishes  man 
above  the  lower  order  of  beings,  and  enables  him 
to  provide  food  and  raiment  and  shelter  for  him- 
self and  for  other  creatures.  2.  T\\^  fanner :  be- 
cause the  mind  cannot  act  without  the  body,  and 

*  Once  a  year  the  emperor  and  his  ministers  "plow  the 
sacred  field"  with  a  highly  ornamented  plow.  The  emperor 
turns  three  furrows,  the  princes  five,  and  the  imperial  minis- 
ters nine.  The  ground  belongs  to  the  temples  of  heaven  and 
earth,  and  the  crop  of  wheat  raised  on  the  field  is  used  in  idol- 
atrous services. 

(196) 


AGRICULTURE   IN   CHINA;  I97 

the  body  cannot  exist  without  food,  so  that  farm- 
ing is  essential  to  the  existence  of  man,  especially 
in  civilized  society.  3.  The  mechanic:  because, 
next  to  food,  shelter  is  a  necessity,  and  the  man 
who  builds  a  house  comes  next  in  honor  to  the 
man  who  furnishes  food.  4.  The  tradesman :  be- 
cause, as  society  increases,  and  its  wants  are  mul- 
tiplied, men  to  carry  on  exchange  and  barter  be- 
come a  necessity,  and  so  the  merchant  comes  into 
existence.  His  occupation — shaving  both  sides, 
the  producer  and  the  consumer — tempts  him  to 
act  dishonestly,  hence  his  low  grade.  5-  T'he 
soldier  stands  last  and  lowest  in  the  list,  because 
his  business  is  to  destroy  and  not  to  build  up  so- 
ciety. He  consumes  what  others  produce,  but 
produces  nothing  himself  that  can  benefit  mankind. 
He  is,  perhaps,  a  necessary  evil." 

The  above  sketch  is  reproduced  from  memory, 
and  may  not  be  in  every  respect  exactly  accurate. 
I  do  not  recall  the  author.  I  understand,  how- 
ever, this  to  be  the  theory  of  the  Chinese  govern- 
ment in  regard  to  the  relative  importance  and  dig- 
nity of  the  several  professions,  and  it  is  creditable 
to  the  good  sense  of  the  nation.  Notwithstanding 
the  honor  thus  conferred  upon  the  farmer  theoret- 
ically, farming  in  China  is  not  more  pleasant  or 
profitable  than  in  other  countries.  Indeed,  there 
are  no  large  farmers  in  China.  The  Chinese  are 
gardeners,  and  not  farmers.  The  density  of  the 
population  and  the  methods  of  cultivation  make 
small  farms  or  gardens  a  necessity. 


198  HISTORY  OF  THE   CHINESE. 

The  land  in  China  is  held  as  a  freehold  so  long 
as  the  government  receives  the  taxes,  or  "  rent," 
as  the  tax  is  called.  This  amounts  to  about  one- 
tenth  of  the  produce  raised  on  the  land.  The  tax 
on  land  in  the  city  is  estimated  in  the  same  way, 
and  is  relatively  very  small.  The  government 
manages,  however,  in  other  ways  to  make  the  rich 
men  of  the  city  bear  their  proportion  of  the  na- 
tional expenses.  The  local  authorities  "  squeeze  " 
(by  a  sj^stem  of  "  borrowing  "  )  the  wealthy  men  of 
the  community.  If  the  mandarins  ask  the  loan  of 
a  few  hundred  dollars,  or  it  may  be  a  few  thou- 
sand, the  merchant  or  tradesman  from  whom  the 
*'loan"  is  asked  knows  better  than  to  refuse  to 
comply.  His  refusal  might  render  it  necessary  to 
employ  other  means  that  would  greatly  embarrass 
him,  for  there  are  more  ways  than  one  of  squeez- 
ing a  rich  man  in  China.  In  this  manner  the  bur- 
den of  taxation  is  distributed  among  all  classes, 
and  thus  the  excessive  pressure  on  the  landholder 
is  mitigated. 

The  legal  sources  of  revenue,  besides  the  land 
tax,  are  custom  and  transit  duties,  pawnbroker's 
taxes,  **  taxes  on  frontier  and  transportation,"  salt 
department  (salt  is  a  government  monopoly),  cus- 
tom duties  on  foreign  trade,  etc.  The  parental 
estate  and  the  houses  upon  it  descend  to  the  old- 
est son,  but  his  brothers  can  remain  upon  it  with 
their  families,  and  devise  their  portion  in  perpe- 
tuity to  their  children.  So  that  a  Chinese  farmer 
feels   secure  in  his  home   so  long  as  he   can  pay 


AGRICULTURE    IN    CHINA.  I99 

the  tax  upon  it.  The  country  people,  as  a  rule, 
are  poor  and  very  ignorant.  When  a  city  man 
would  express  his  contempt  for  anyone  whom  he 
wishes  to  degrade,  he  calls  him  "  a  countryman  " 
— or  a  farmer. 

The  implements  used  in  agriculture  by  the  Chi- 
nese are  few  and  exceedingly  rude;  the  hoe,  the 
mattock,  spade,  and  shovel,  with  a  miserable  sub- 
stitute for  a  plow,  constitute  the  outfit  of  the  aver- 
age farmer.  He  makes  up  for  the  disadvantages 
of  poor  instruments  by  hard  work.  The  buffalo, 
ox,  horse,  and  mule  are  used  in  farming  to  some 
extent,  but  not  as  much  as  with  us.  You  will 
sometimes  see  two  of  these  animals  3^oked  togeth- 
er in  a  ludicrous  manner,  and  the  driver  arrayed 
in  a  fantastic  suit  woven  of  straw,  and  resembling 
.somewhat  a  walking  haystack.  The  clumsy  plow 
barely  scratches  the  surface  of  the  ground,  but  the 
soil  is  fertile,  and  the  climate  friendly,  so  that  in 
the  end  the  industrious  farmer  gathers  in  a  good 
harvest  as  the  reward  of  his  toil. 

Rice  is  the  principal  article  of  food  in  China,  and 
its  production  is  therefore  general  wherever  the 
conditions  are  at  all  favorable  to  its  growth.  The 
manner  of  raising  it  need  not  here  be  described, 
because  there  is  nothing  peculiar  about  it.  Wheat, 
barley,  and  millet  are  grown  in  large  quantities. 
The  demand  for  food  in  China  is  so  great  that  the 
farmer  gives  little  attention  comparatively  to  any 
other  product  than  grain  and  vegetables,  except, 
perhaps,  cotton,  hemp,  indigo,  tea,  and  some  oth- 


200  HISTORY   OF   THE   CHINESE. 

ers,  used  in  manufactures  and  commerce.  The 
celebrated  ''nankeen  cotton"  is  raised  in  the 
great  valley  of  the  Yang-tse.  I  have  seen  it  and 
a  very  fair  article  of  white  cotton  growing  side  by 
side  near  Shanghai. 

I  shall  omit  any  description  of  the  manner  in 
which  the  ordinary  farm  products  are  cultivated, 
because  there  is  nothing  strikingly  peculiar  about 
it.  Of  all  the  branches  of  Chinese  industry,  the 
growth  and  preparation  of  tea  has  been  the  most 
celebrated,  and  is  one  of  the  most  important  to 
China  and  to  Western  nations. 

GROWTH  AND  PREPARATION  OF  THE  TEA  PLANT. 

The  knowledge  of  the  tea  plant  cannot  be  traced 
farther  back  than  A.D.  350.  Its  general  use 
among  the  Chinese  dates  back  to  A.D.  800.  It  is 
related  to  the  Camellia,  and  bears  the  same  name 
among  the  Chinese.  It  usually  grows  from  three 
to  six  feet  high,  and  presents  a  dense  foliage,  the 
result  of  frequent  pruning.  In  Assam,  where  it 
grows  wild,  it  often  reaches  the  height  of  thirty 
feet.  The  leaf  is  of  a  dark  green  color,  of  an  ob- 
long oval  shape,  and  the  flowers  are  white,  single, 
and  without  odor.  The  seeds  are  like  hazel  nuts 
in  size  and  color,  three  of  them  being  inclosed  in  a 
hard  husk,  and  so  oily  as  to  soon  become  rancid. 
The  tea  plant  resembles  in  appearance  the  privet 
of  our  hedges. 

The  soil  most  favorable  to  the  growth  of  the  tea 
plant  is  a  rich,  sandy  earth,  with  a  large  propor- 
tion of  vegetable  mold  in  it.     The  hillside  is  pre- 


AGRICULTURE   IN   CHINA.  20l 

ferred  to  the  lower  ground,  if  near  water;  and 
usually  the  patches  above  rice  fields  furnish  the 
best  flavored  leaves.  It  is  from  orchards  thus  sit- 
uated that  the  most  celebrated  brands  of  tea  are 
obtained.  The  greater  part  of  the  tea  exported  is 
grown  in  the  provinces  of  Fo-keen,  Che-kiang, 
and  Kiang-su.  It  is,  however,  produced  in  all  the 
eighteen  provinces  except  in  the  extreme  north. 
It  is  usually  raised  by  individual  farmers,  who 
cultivate  a  few  dozen — or,  it  may  be,  a  few  score — 
of  shrubs  upon  their  own  lands,  and  either  cure 
the  leaves  themselves  or  sell  them  to  their  neigh- 
bors, who  prepare  them  for  the  market.  There 
are  a  few  large  plantations  under  the  care  of  rich 
landlords,  but  not  man}^  The  small  farmer  raises 
tea  as  he  does  cotton,  silk,  or  rice,  and  when  the 
season  ends  sells  to  the  tea  broker,  who  carries  it 
to  the  best  market  he  can  find. 

A  single  plant  or  tree  of  large  size  will  produce 
annually  from  sixteen  to  twenty-four  ounces  of 
leaves.  Three  crops  are  gathered  during  the  sea- 
son. The  first  picking  takes  place  about  the  mid- 
dle of  April,  or  whenever  the  tender  buds  begin  to 
open,  and  while  the  leaves  are  still  covered  with  a 
whitish  down.  These  early  pickings  produce  the 
best  tea.  The  second  gathering  is  about  the  first 
of  May,  when  the  shrubs  are  covered  with  full- 
grown  leaves.  The  Chinese  say  that  the  weather 
affects  very  materially  the  quality  of  the  leaves, 
and  that  when  the  proper  time  comes  the  picking 
should  be  done  as  rapidly  as  possible.    The  leaves 


202 


HISTORY   OF  THE   CHINESE. 


are  put  into  a  basket  and  taken  to  the  curing 
houses.  The  third  and  last  picking  of  leaves 
takes  place  in  July.  There  is  ''a  gleaning"  or 
picking  in  August,  called  *'  autumn  dew,"  which 
produces  an  inferior  quality  of  tea.  The  quality 
of  the  different  kinds  of  tea  depends  upon  the  na- 
ture of  the  soil,  climate,  age  of  the  leaf,  and  the 
manner  of  curing. 


TEA-CURING   HOUSE. 


After  the  leaves  are  gathered  and  housed,  they 
are  carefully  assorted,  the  yellow  and  old  ones 
picked  out.  The  remainder  of  the  ''picking"  is 
spread  on  bamboo  trays,  and  placed  where  the 
wind  can  blow  upon  them  until  they  begin  to 
soften;  then,  while  lying  upon  the  tray,  they  are 
gently  rolled  and  rubbed  for  some  time,  when  red 


Agriculture  in  china.  203 

spots  appear  upon  them.  They  are  then  tested  by 
pouring  hot  water  upon  them  to  see  if  the  edge  of 
the  leaf  turns  yellow.  The  leaves  must  be  rolled 
many  times,  and  then  "  fired."  The  pan  in  which 
the  leaves  are  to  be  put  is  heated  to  a  proper  tem- 
perature, and  the  workman  takes  a  handful  of 
leaves  and  sprinkles  them  upon  it  and  waits  until 
each  leaf  '*  pops,"  when  he  instantly  brushes  them 
off  before  they  are  charred.  Such  is  the  account 
which  the  Chinese  give  of  the  manner  in  which 
the  tea  is  prepared  in  the  Bohea  hills.  The  test- 
ing and  rolling  are  omitted  in  preparing  the  com- 
mon sorts  of  tea.  The  fresh  leaves  are  thrown 
into  the  heated  pans  and  kept  in  motion  until  the 
oil  is  forced  out  and  they  burst  open.  After  four 
or  five  minutes  they  are  taken  out  and  rolled. 
This  operation  is  performed  on  tables  made  of 
split  bamboos.  After  the  leaves  are  thus  rolled 
they  are  shaken  out  loosely  and  placed  on  trays  to 
complete  the  necessary  drying.*  The  common 
sorts  of  black  tea  are  left  in  the  sun  and  air  after 
the  first  process  of  firing  and  rolling,  a  much  long- 
er time — even  for  days,  especially  if  the  tea  is  in- 
tended for  the  foreiijn  market. 

As  soon  as  the  process  of  curing  is  finished,  the 
finer  quality  is  inclosed  in  canisters  or  small  paper 
bags,  and  packed  in  boxes  lined  with  lead.  The 
tea  is  then  ready  for  the  broker,  who  purchases  it 
directly  from  the  producer,  and  carries  it  to  some 
seaport  where  it  is  prepared  for  shipment  to  for- 

*Dr.  Williams;  Chinese  Repositorj^ 


204  HISTORY   OF  THE   CHINESE. 

eign  countries,  or  sold  to  Chinese  merchants  for 
home  consumption. 

The  question  is  often  asked  whether  the  differ- 
ent kinds  of  tea  come  from  the  same  shrub,  or 
whether  there  are  varieties  of  the  same  plant — a 
black  tea  plant,  and  a  green  tea  plant,  etc.  There 
is  but  one  plant,  from  which  all  the  kinds  of  tea 
known  to  the  trade  are  made.  The  differences 
which  characterize  each  kind  are  the  result  of  the 
manner  in  w^hich  the  leaf  is  manipulated.  Green 
tea  is  cured  more  rapidly  than  black  tea,  and  is 
not  thrown  into  baskets  after  it  is  fired.  Green 
tea  can  be  changed  into  black  tea,  but  black  tea 
cannot  be  changed  into  green  tea.  More  of  the 
essential  oil  remains  in  the  green  tea  than  in  the 
black,  and  this  is  the  cause,  perhaps,  of  the  differ- 
ence in  the  flavor  of  the  two  kinds. 

There  rnay  be  some  difference  in  the  peculiar 
quality  of  the  plant,  caused  b}^  a  difference  of  soil 
and  climate,  for  it  is  raised  over  a  large  extent  of 
country,  covering  several  degrees  of  latitude ;  but 
the  difference  cannot  be  detected  in  the  leaf  when 
green  or  dried.  Tea  is  a  universal  beverage  in 
China  and  Japan,  and  is  used  extensively  in  Mon- 
golia, Siam,  and  other  neighboring  countries.  It 
is  regarded  as  very  w-holesome  by  the  Chinese, 
and  is  used  as  a  substitute  for  cold  w^ater  as  a 
drink.  Tea  shops  are  seen  everywhere  in  cities, 
towns,  and  villages,  and  even  in  the  hamlets 
throughout  the  rural  districts.  Ever^^body  drinks 
tea  everywhere  and  at  all  times. 


CHINESE   LOOM. 


REELING  SILK. 


(205) 


CHAPTER  XVIII. 

Manufactures  in  China. 
porcelain. 

THE  Chinese  are  an  ingenious  people,  and  in  no 
department  of  industr}^  have  they  displayed 
their  originality  more  than  in  their  arts  and  manu- 
factures. In  early  discoveries  and  inventions  they 
have  no  rivals.  Long  before  the  mariner's  com- 
pass was  known  in  the  West  they  were  using  the 
magnetic  needle  in  their  sedan  chairs  and  car- 
riages. So  also  of  the  composition  of  gunpowder 
and  the  art  of  printing.  However  much  we  have 
surpassed  them  in  the  practical  use  and  improve- 
ment of  these  inventions,  we  must  admit  the  pri- 
ority of  the  Chinese  claim  to  be  the  original  in- 
ventors. It  is  reasonable  to  suppose  that  the 
knowledge  of  these  contrivances  traveled  slowly 
by  tradition  from  China  into  Europe,  and  that  the 
world  is  indebted  to  these  ingenious  Asiatics  for 
the  three  great  discoveries,  or  inventions.  Porce- 
lain may  be  classed  with  printing,  the  compass, 
and  gunpowder,  as  an  original  Chinese  invention. 
The  word  porcelain,  from  the  Portuguese  for- 
cellana^  means  seashell,  and  was  the  name  given 
by  the  Portuguese  to  the  semi-transparent  cups 
which  they  saw  on  their  arrival  in  China.  It  is 
therefore  another  name  for  China  ware.  The  fol- 
(206) 


MANUFACTURES    IN   CHINA.  207 

lowing  account  of  the  manufacture  of  porcelain 
is  taken  from  Sir  John  Davis's  History  of  China. 
I  have  seen  all  varieties  of  Chinese  and  Japanese 
ware,  but  I  never  saw  a  porcelain  factory,  and 
cannot  therefore  describe  the  process  of  manu- 
facture from  my  own  personal  knowledge: 

*'  Silica  and  alumina,  or  flint  and  clay,  are  the 
principal  constituents  in  all  China  ware.  The  Chi- 
nese say  that  they  procure  the  material  for  the 
manufacture  of  porcelain  from  a  high  mountain  in 
the  neighborhood  of  Poyang  lake.  Foreigners 
have  examined  this  material  and  find  it  to  be  fel- 
spar and  clay,  or  the  same  as  the  porcelain  earth 
of  Europe.  The  silica  is  reduced  by  pounding  in 
mortars  to  a  very  fine  powder.  This  is  made  into 
paste  and  sold  to  the  manufacturers  of  porcelain. 
Another  substance  used  in  making  the  ware  is 
soapstone ;  and  still  another  is  alabaster,  or  gyp- 
sum, which  is  used  in  painting  the  articles  man- 
ufactured. 

'*  The  vitreous  glaze  used  by  the  Chinese  to  finish 
off  their  porcelain  is  obtained  by  mixing  the  pow- 
dered silica  or  flint  with  the  ashes  of  fern.  They 
call  this  'varnish.'  In  painting  the  ware  one  set 
of  people  design  the  outline  and  others  fill  in  the 
colors.  The  Chinese  say  the  object  of  this  ar- 
rangement is  to  '  concentrate  the  workman's  hand, 
and  not  divide  his  mind.'  It  is  said  that  previ- 
ous to  baking  the  same  specimen  of  ware  passes 
through  twenty  hands,  and  that  before  being  sold 
it  has  gone  through  more  than  double  that  number. 


208  HISTORY   OF  THE   CHINESE. 

The  colors  used  on  the  finest  quaHty  of  porcelain 
have  long  been  admired  by  foreigners,  and  efforts 
have  frequently  been  made  to  ascertain  the  ma- 
terial used  and  the  manner  of  mixing  the  colors. 
Enough  has  been  learned,  however,  to  enable  the 
European  manufacturers  to  equal,  if  not  surpass, 
the  Chinese  artists  in  ornamenting  their  work, 
whether  they  have  discovered  the  Chinese  secret 
or  not.  The  Japanese  have  long  understood  the 
art  of  manufacturing  porcelain,  and  have  excelled 
the  Chinese  in  design  and  execution." 

Besides  table  furniture,  jars  of  various  sizes  and 
shapes  have  been  manufactured  b}^  the  Chinese 
both  for  use  and  ornament.  Porcelain  idols  are 
common  in  the  homes  and  temples;  the  God  of 
Porcelain  himself  is  usually  made  of  this  material. 
The  tradition  concerning  this  god  is  that  a  certain 
workman  was  ordered  by  the  emperor  to  produce 
some  vases  of  peculiar^  fineness.  After  several  un- 
successful efforts  to  secure  the  desired  quality,  the 
workman  became  desperate,  and  in  his  frenzy 
leaped  into  the  furnace  and  was  instantly  con- 
sumed. The  vases  that  came  out  of  the  furnace 
after  the  immolation  of  the  workman  pleased  the 
emperor  so  much  that  he  deified  him.  A  cheap 
stoneware  is  made  by  the  Chinese  for  common 
use.  Large  jars  for  holding  grain,  v/ater,  etc., 
are  to  be  seen  in  all  parts  of  China  about  the 
homes  of  the  rich  and  poor.  They  are  very  sub- 
stantial, and  often  sufficiently  large  to  hold  fifty 
gallons  of  water  or  grain. 


MANUFACTURES    IN   CHINA.  2O9 

LACQUER  WARE. 

The  beautiful  lacquered  ware,  which  foreigners 
admire  so  much,  though  not  made  of  porcelain, 
may  be  classed  with  the  same  grade  of  manufac- 
tures, because,  like  the  porcelain,  it  combines  the 
two  qualities  of  the  useful  and  ornamental.  The 
Japanese  surpass  all  the  rest  of  the  world  in  the 
production  of  this  peculiar  ware.  They  learned 
the  art  from  the  Chinese,  but  have  far  excelled 
their  teachers.  Cabinets,  secretaries,  writing 
desks,  jewelry  boxes,  and  hundreds  of  other  de- 
signs, are  manufactured  by  the  Chinese  for  the 
foreign  markets  of  the  West.  Whatever  the  de- 
sign may  be,  the  manner  of  making  the  article  is 
the  same.  The  body  of  the  ware  is  wood  partially 
smoothed,  or  it  may  be  pasteboard,  upon  which 
two  or  three  coats  of  a  composition  of  lime,  paper, 
and  gum  are  first  laid  and  thoroughly  dried  and 
rubbed.  The  surface  of  the  wood  is  also  hardened 
by  rubbing  coarse  clay  upon  it,  and  afterwards 
scraping  it  off.  Two  coatings  of  lampblack  and 
wood  oil,  or  of  lampblack  and  varnish,  are  now 
laid  on,  one  after  the  other,  with  great  care  in 
close  and  darkened  rooms,  allowing  it  to  dry  well 
between  the  several  coats.  The  articles  are  then 
laid  by  to  be  painted  and  gilded  according  to  the 
fancy  of  the  artist,  after  which  a  last  coating  is 
given  them.  A  very  beautiful  quality  of  lacquered 
ware  is  made  by  inlaying  with  mother-of-pearl 
taken  from  salt  and  fresh  water  shells.  Another 
kind,  much  admired  by  the  Chinese,  is  made  by 
14 


2IO  HISTORY  OF  THE   CHINESE. 

covering  the  wood  with  a  coating  of  red  varnish 
three  or  four  Hnes  in  thickness,  and  then  carving 
figures  upon  it  in  rehef .  This  kind  of  ware  is  ex- 
pensive. 

MANUFACTURE  OF  SILK. 

The  Chinese  were  the  first  people  to  manufac- 
ture silk,  as  they  were  the  inventors  of  porcelain 
and  lacquered  ware,  and  in  neither  have  foreigners 
yet  excelled  them.  The  French  China  ware  is  very 
beautiful,  but  it  is  said  to  be  inferior  in  some  im- 
portant respects  to  that  manufactured  in  China. 

The  cultivation  of  the  mulberry  tree  and  the  man- 
ufacture of  silk  can  be  traced  back  to  seven  hun- 
dred and  eighty  years  before  our  era.  Indeed,  the 
Chinese  historians  refer  the  invention  of  weaving 
silk  to  the  Empress  Siling,  the  wife  of  the  Emperor 
Wangte,  B.C.  2602.  However  this  may  be,  no- 
body doubts  that  the  Chinese  were  the  original 
inventors,  and  the  intelligent  world  has  agreed  to 
give  them  the  credit  of  it.  How  the  silkworm  was 
discovered,  and  what  suggested  the  use  of  the 
cocoon ;  how  the  mulberry  leaf  was  found  to  be 
the  natural  food  for  the  worm,  etc.,  we  are  not 
informed.  The  Chinese  have  always  been  care- 
ful and  patient  observers  of  nature,  with  a  practi- 
cal turn  of  mind  which  sought  to  improve  every 
fact  for  some  useful  purpose.  It  is  said  by  one  of 
their  classical  writers  that  "  in  ancient  times  em- 
perors plowed  the  lands  and  empresses  cultivated 
the  mulberr}^  Though  the  most  honorable,  they 
did  not  disdain  to  toil  and  labor,  as  examples  to 


CHINESE    ARTIST 


EMBROIDERING. 


(211) 


212  HISTORY   OF  THE    CHINESE. 

the  whole  emph-e,  in  order  to  induce  all  the  peo- 
ple to  seek  these  essential  supports." 

The  finest  silk  in  the  world  is  said  to  be  pro- 
duced in  the  province  of  Hoo-peh  in  China.  Great 
care  is  taken  in  rearing  the  silkworms,  and  in  cul- 
tivating the  mulberry  leaves  upon  which  they  feed. 
While  the  worms  are  growing,  and  also  while  they 
are  spinning,  they  are  kept  in  absolute  quiet — all 
noise  is  forbidden  in  their  neighborhood.  They  are 
often  changed  from  one  hurdle  to  another,  in  order 
to  keep  them  clean  and  to  give  them  pure  air. 
The  worms  must  be  fed  at  the  right  time,  and  in 
sufficient  quantity.  The  mulberry  leaf  must  be  of 
the  proper  kind,  age,  and  condition.  Three  days 
are  required  for  them  to  spin,  and  in  six  days  the 
larv£e  must  be  stifled  and  the  silk  reeled  from  the 
cocoons.  This,  however,  is  usually  done  by  other 
workmen  than  those  who  rear  the  worms.  The 
cocoons  are  placed  in  a  jar  and  buried  in  the 
ground,  being  interlarded  with  a  layer  of  leaves 
and  salt,  which  kills  the  pupag  and  keeps  the  silk 
supple,  strong,  and  lustrous.  Preserved  in  this 
manner,  the  cocoons  can  be  transported  to  any  dis- 
tance. The  cocoons  are  sometimes  spread  on  trays 
and  exposed  to  the  steam  of  boiling  water.  After 
exposure  to  steam,  the  silk  can  be  reeled  off  with- 
out difficulty. 

Che-kiang  province  produces  the  finest  silk,  next 
to  the  province  of  Hoo-peh,  and  this  is  attributed,  in 
part  at  least,  to  the  superior  quality  of  the  mulberry 
leaf  on  which  the  worms  feed.     The  silk  is  rich 


MANUFACTURES   IN   CHINA.  213 

and  the  country  well  watered;  the  climate  seems 
also  well  adapted  to  produce  a  tender  and  delicate 
leaf,  and  the  people  have  for  ages  given  them- 
selves almost  wholly  to  the  growing  of  silk,  so  that 
this  province  is  celebrated  in  the  silk  markets  of 
the  world  for  the  superior  quality  of  its  raw  silk. 
The  proportion  of  food  favorable  to  the  growth 
and  productiveness  of  the  worms  has  been  accu- 
rately ascertained  by  experience,  and  the  leaves 
are  carefully  weighed  as  they  are  fed  to  the 
worms. 

Large  quantities  of  raw  silk  are  sent  out  of  the 
country,  especially  to  France,  but  the  principal 
part  is  woven  into  fabrics  in  China.  The  Chinese 
loom  is  a  peculiar  machine,  and  exceedingly  sim- 
ple in  structure,  yet  capable  of  producing  marvel- 
ous results  in  the  hands  of  skilled  native  workmen. 
It  requires  two  men  to  work  it,  one  of  whom  sits 
on  the  top  of  the  frame  and  manages  the  treadles, 
and  the  other  sits  below  and  superintends  the 
changes  necessary  to  form  the  desired  pattern. 
The}^  will  imitate  almost  any  design,  excelling  es- 
pecially in  crapes,  flowered  satins,  and  damasks. 
Many  of  the  delicate  silk  tissues  known  in  Europe 
are  not  made  in  China,  most  of  their  fabrics  being 
heavy  gauze. 

Chinese  embroidery  is  well  known,  and  cele- 
brated for  its  delicacy  and  beauty  throughout  the 
civilized  world.  It  is  used  a  great  deal  in  China 
to  adorn  the  dresses  of  the  officers,  from  the  em- 
peror down  to  the  lowest  grade ;    also  for  ladies' 


214  HISTORY   OF  THE   CHINESE. 

dresses,  purses,  shoes,  caps,  fans,  and  other  arti- 
cles. All  the  work  is  done  by  hand,  unaided  by 
any  sort  of  machinery  except  a  light  frame  on 
which  the  material  is  stretched.  There  are  many 
styles  of  work,  all  more  or  less  beautiful.  I  have 
seen  women  at  work  on  the  most  elegant  fabrics, 
doing  the  finest  style  of  embroidery,  in  miserable 
hovels,  surrounded  by  all  the  inconveniences  and 
discomforts  of  abject  poverty.  It  is  a  mystery 
how  they  keep  from  soiling  the  delicate  silks  and 
satins  on  which  they  work.  Much  of  the  most 
elegant  embroidery  is  made  by  poor  women. 


UKlliK   AMU   liRIDJCGKOoM. 


Chapter  xix. 

Social  and  Domestic  Life  in  China. 

betrothal  and  marriage. 

THERE  can  be  no  pure  social  or  domestic  life 
where  woman  is  degraded;  where  she  is 
bought  and  sold  as  a  chattel,  and  where  she  is 
treated  in  .her  own  home  as  a  menial.  Where 
woman  is  degraded  man  is  degraded.  The  sepa- 
ration of  the  sexes  debases  man  as  well  as  woman. 
The  men  become  coarse,  selfish,  and  brutal;  the 
women  cultivate  gossip,  indolence,  and  the  vices 
peculiar  to  an  unnatural  and  restrained  mode  of 
life.  In  China  the  separation  of  the  sexes  has 
led  the  men  to  spend  their  idle  time  in  gambling 
and  opium  smoking.  Other  kindred  vices  have 
followed,  until  the  whole  fabric  of  social  life  has 
sunk  to  the  lowest  depths  of  moral  degradation. 
That  the  women  should  be  pure  and  virtuous, 
where  the  men  are  so  demoralized,  is  hardly  to  be 
expected. 

In  giving  some  account  of  the  social  and  do- 
mestic life  of  the  Chinese,  it  will  be  well  to  begin 
with  marriage,  as  this  is  the  foundation  of  all  or- 
ganized and  well-regulated  society.  The  Chinese 
have  always  observed  and  honored  the  marriage 
relation,  and  the  laws  of  the  empire  have  carefully 
guarded  the  sanctity  and  duties  of  the  institution. 
Although  a  modified  form  of  polygamy  is  permit- 
(216) 


SOCIAL  AND   DOMESTIC   LIFE.  21 7 

ted  in  certain  cases,  a  man  can  have  but  one  legal 
wife  in  China.  He  may  purchase  concubines,  but 
they  sustain  the  relation  of  servants  in  the  family, 
and  not  that  of  wives. 

Betrothal  in  China  takes  the  place  of  courtship 
in  our  country.  The  young  people  may  never  see 
each  other  until  after  marriage;  indeed,  they  can- 
not unless  by  accident,  or  in  a  clandestine  way. 
The  whole  matter  is  a  pure  business  transaction, 
conducted  by  the  parents  of  the  parties  and  the 
go-between.  There  may  be  love  between  the 
husband  and  wife  after  they  have  become  ac- 
quainted, but  there  is  no  opportunity  for  such  a 
thing  before  marriage. 

Six  formal  ceremonies  are  to  be  observed  in 
all  regular  betrothals,  (i)  The  father  and  elder 
brother  of  the  boy  or  young  man  who  would  seek 
a  bride  send  a  **  go-between"  (the  person  who 
conduces  the  negotiations  between  the  parties)  to 
the  father  and  brother  of  the  girl  selected,  to  in- 
quire her  name  and  the  moment  of  her  birth,  in 
order  that  the  horoscopes  of  the  two  may  be  ex- 
amined and  compared  by  the  astrologer,  to  see  if 
their  union  as  husband  and  wife  would  be  fortu- 
nate. (2)  If  the  astrologer  pronounces  the  con- 
ditions to  be  favorable,  the  go-between  is  sent 
back  to  make  an  offer  of  marriage  to  the  father 
and  brother  of  the  girl.  (3)  If  he  is  accepted, 
the  second  party  is  requested  to  put  their  an- 
swer in  writing.  (4)  Presents  are  then  sent  to 
the  girl's    parents    according    to   the    social    rank 


2l8  HISTORY  OF   THE   CHINESE. 

and  ability  of  the  two  families.  (5)  The  go-be- 
tween now  requests  the  parties  to  select  a  lucky 
day  for  the  wedding.  (6)  When  the  day  selected 
for  the  marriage  arrives  the  bridegroom  sends  a 
party  of  his  friends  with  a  red  sedan  chair  and  a 
band  of  musicians  to  bring  the  bride  to  his  own 
house. 

In  some  parts  of  the  country  mere  infants  are 
sometimes  betrothed,  and  the  transaction  is  regis- 
tered^ containing  the  names  of  the  children,  the  par- 
ticulars of  their  birth,  etc. ;  and  these  registers  are 
exchanged  by  the  parents  of  the  children  in  tes- 
Jimony  of  the  contract.  After  this  has  been  done, 
unless  one  of  the  parties  becomes  a  leper,  or  is 
disabled,  it  is  impossible  to  retract  the  engage- 
ment. When  the  persons  betrothed  are  older, 
the  boy  sometimes  accompanies  the  go-between 
and  the  party  carrying  the  presents  to  the  house  of 
the  future  mother-in-law,  and  receives  from  her 
sume  trifling  articles,  as  melon  seeds,  fruits,  etc., 
which  he  distributes  to  those  present.  Among  the 
presents  sent  to  the  girl  are  fruits,  money,  vermi- 
celli, and  a  ham,  of  which  she  gives  a  morsel  to 
each  person,  and  sends  the  foot  back.  The  party 
bringing  these  presents  is  received  with  a  salute 
of  firecrackers.  What  it  all  means  we  are  not  in- 
formed, except  that  custom  demands  that  these  cer- 
emonies be  observed  as  preliminary  to  marriage. 

After  the  time  of  engagement  the  girl  is  re- 
quired to  maintain  the  strictest  seclusion.  When 
friends  call  she  must  retire  to  the  inner  apartments, 


SOCIAL  AND   DOMESTIC   LIFE.  219 

and  on  all  occasions  conduct  herself  with  rigid  de- 
corum according  to  the  ancient  rites.  When  she 
goes  out  it  must  be  in  a  close  sedan  chair,  and  her 
intercourse  with  her  brothers  and  the  domestics  of 
the  household  must  be  governed  by  extreme  re- 
serve. She  is  deprived  of  those  delightful  friend- 
ships and  associations  with  her  own  sex  and  age 
which  render  young  womanhood  in  the  West  such 
a  happy  season.  The  Chinese  young  girl,  thus 
secluded  and  fenced  in  by  custom,  has  no  oppor- 
tunity to  form  acquaintances  outside  of  her  own 
family  before  marriage,  and  after  marriage  she  is 
doomed  to  strict  privacy.  Such,  at  least,  is  the  the- 
ory of  Chinese  domestic  life  so  far  as  the  females 
of  the  household  are  concerned. 

The  rites  and  ceremonies  connected  with  a  legal 
marriage  in  China  are  substantially  the  same  in  all 
the  provinces,  modified,  however,  more  or  less  by 
local  customs.  The  ceremonies  here  described 
are  those  observed  in  a  southern  province,  *^id 
may  differ  in  a  few  particulars  from  what  is  ob- 
served at  weddings  in  some  other  provinces,  but 
in  no  essential  point. 

The  marriage  cannot  take  place  until  all  the 
presents  due  from  the  bridegroom  have  been  re- 
ceived. These  are  sometimes  costly,  amounting  to 
hundreds  of  dollars,  but  usually,  among  the  well- 
to-do  classes,  the  sum  does  not  exceed  twenty-five 
to  forty  dollars. 

When  the  lucky  day  arrives,  all  the  prelimina- 
ries having  been  satisfactorily  arranged,  the  invited 


220    -  HISTORY  OF   THE   CHINESE. 

guests  assemble  in  the  house  of  the  bridegroom, 
where  musicians,  sedans,  and  porters  are  in  read- 
iness. The  courier,  who  acts  as  guide  to  the  chair- 
bearers,  takes  the  lead  of  the  procession,  and  in 
order  to  prevent  evil  spirits  from  doing  mischief 
to  the  party  he  carries  a  baked  pig,  or  large  piece 
of  pork ;  and  while  the  spirits  are  supposed  to  be 
devouring  the  meat,  the  company  passes  on  un- 
harmed. In  the  meantime  the  bride  has  been 
properly  arrayed,  and  is  ready  for  the  chair-bear- 
ers who  are  to  bear  her  to  the  bridegroom's  house. 
An  elaborate  and  ornamental  headdress,  made  of 
rich  materials,  resembling  in  general  appearance 
a  crown,  forms  a  part  of  the  trousseau.  A  large 
red  mantle  covers  her  person.  Thus  attired,  she 
enters  the  '*  flowery  chair,"  and  is  borne  away  to 
her  future  home,  there  to  meet  for  the  first  time 
her  husband.  She  "weeps  and  wails"  all  the 
way,  for  it  would  be  unbecoming  to  show  any 
signs  of  pleasure  on  leaving  her  father  and  mother 
and  the  home  of  her  childhood.  The  weeping  is 
conventional,  but  often  sincere,  no  doubt;  for  she 
is  going  she  knows  not  where,  and  to  meet  new 
trials,  and  perhaps  new  sorrows.  She  is  to  become 
the  slave  of  her  husband ;  and  what  may  be  worse, 
she  is  to  become  the  drudge  of  a  bad-tempered 
mother-in-law.  But  she  has  no  choice  in  the  mat- 
ter— all  has  been  arranged  for  her  by  others,  and 
her  duty  is  simply  to  do  as  she  is  bid.  It  always 
has  been  so  with  her,  and  it  will  be  to  the  end 
of  life.     She  has  no  rights  that  anybody  is  bound 


SOCIAL  AND   DOMESTIC    LIFE.  221 

to  respect;  she  is  only  a  woman,  a  creature  with- 
out a  soul  and  without  a  future.  No  wonder  she 
weeps  I 

The  procession  leaves  the  bride's  home,  car- 
rying all  the  worldly  goods  which  the  means  of 
the  family  will  allow.  These  things  are  usually 
packed  in  red  boxes.  The  courier  hastens  on  to 
announce  the  approach  of  the  procession,  where- 
upon the  music  strikes  up,  and  the  inevitable  fire- 
crackers are  let  off  until  she  enters  the  gate.  The  go- 
between  brings  forward  a  young  child  to  meet  her, 
while  she  goes  in  search  of  the  bridegroom  who  is 
supposed  to  have  concealed  himself.  When  he 
meets  the  bride,  they — both  bridegroom  and  bride 
— approach  the  ancestral  tablets  of  his  ancestors 
and  worship,  bowing  three  times  in  a  most  reverent 
and  solemn  manner.  They  then  seat  themselves  at 
a  table  on  which  are  two  cups  of  wine.  The  go- 
between  serves  them,  and  they  both  taste  the  wine. 
This  is  the  legal  point  in  the  marriage  ceremony 
— **  pledging  the  wine  cup."  It  is  never  omitted. 
After  this  part  of  the  ceremony  has  been  per- 
formed by  the  go-between,  any  other  local  cere- 
monies may  be  introduced.  Then  the  bride  is 
conducted  to  the  bridal  chamber,  and  her  veil  is 
removed.  The  bridegroom  enters  and  looks  upon 
her  for  a  moment  and  retires.  The  female  guests 
and  friends  now  enter,  and  are  at  liberty  to  criticise 
the  person  of  the  bride,  which  they  usually  do  with 
entire  freedom.  As  before  stated,  customs  vary 
in  different  provinces.     In  some  places  the  cere- 


222  HISTORY   OF   THE    CHINESE. 

monies  are  much  more  elaborate  than  in  oth- 
ers, and  many  local  superstitions  are  observed  in 
one  province  wholly  unknown  in  other  provinces. 
The  rich  make  it  an  occasion  for  displaying  their 
wealth.  The  poor  are  unable  to  do  more  than  im- 
itate the  rich  as  far  as  their  limited  means  will  per- 
mit. Among  the  poor,  in  order  to  avoid  the  ex- 
penses of  a  wedding,  a  girl  is  sometimes  purchased 
for  a  small  sum,  and  brought  up  in  the  family  as 
a  daughter  until  she  reaches  a  marriageable  age, 
when  she  becomes  a  wife  with  simple  and  inexpen- 
sive ceremonies.  In  this,  as  in  other  matters,  the 
rich  do  as  they  please,  while  the  poor  do  the  best 
they  can.  Happiness  does  not  depend  upon  wealth 
or  honors  anywhere.  The  Chinese  are  under  the 
same  natural  and  moral  laws,  and  subject  to  the 
same  providential  government,  with  ourselves,  and 
we  find  therefore  similar  experiences  in  all  condi- 
tions of  life  here  and  in  China:  the  rich  are  often 
miserable,  and  the  poor  comparatively  happy.  Of 
course  the  conditions  of  social  life  are  in  Christian 
countries  vastly  more  favorable  to  the  happiness 
of  all  classes  than  in  heathen  lands.  I  speak  only 
relatively  when  I  compare  Chinese  social  and  do- 
mestic life  with  our  own.  The  comparison  amounts 
to  a  painful  contrast.  In  China  woman  is  degraded 
and  all  associated  with  her  is  demoralized.  There 
is  not  among  the  unconverted  millions  of  China  a 
single  home,  in  the  sense  in  which  we  use  that  sweet 
word.  There  are  millions  of  households,  but  not 
homes,  for  the  wife  and  mother  and  her  daugh- 


SOCIAL  AND  DOMESTIC    LIFE.  223 

ters  are  regarded  as  inferiors,  as  servants,  whose 
sole  duty  it  is  to  provide  for  the  comfort  of  the 
male  members  of  the  family,  and  not  as  equals  or 
companions.  There  are,  no  doubt,  exceptions  to 
this  unhappy  state  of  domestic  life.  The  wife  may 
not  feel  that  any  injustice  is  done  her,  and  that  she 
ought  therefore  to  be  content  with  her  lot.  All 
husbands  are  not  tyrannical  and  cruel,  and  some 
mothers-in-law  may  be  gentle  and  patient,  but  the 
conditions  generally  are  not  favorable  to  domestic 
felicity. 

Concubines  are  not  married  with  the  ceremo- 
nies just  described,  but  are  simply  purchased  and 
brought  into  the  family  as  inferiors  or  domestics. 
If  they  have  children  the  legal  wife  is  accounted 
the  mother^  and  the  children  address  her  as  such, 
and  they  have  equal  rights  with  the  children  born 
of  the  wife.  The  Chinese  are  aware  of  the  evils 
of  a  divided  household,  and  the  law  places  the  au- 
thority to  control  all  the  members  of  the  family  in 
the  hands  of  the  wife.  This  does  not,  however, 
prevent  domestic  jealousies,  bickerings,  and  strifes, 
especially  if  the  concubines  live  under  the  same 
roof  with  the  wife.  Polygamy  is  esteemed  one 
of  the  luxuries  of  the  rich,  and  is  seldom  found 
among  the  poor. 

If  a  betrothed  girl  loses  her  intended  husband 
by  death,  public  opinion  honors  her  if  she  refuse 
a  second  engagement.  So  strong  is  this  feeling 
that  girls  have  been  known  to  commit  suicide 
rather  than  contract  a  second  marriage.     Some- 


224  HISTORY   OF   THE    CHINESE. 

times,  after  a  girl  has  been  betrothed,  the  circum- 
stances of  her  own  family  and  those  of  her  in- 
tended husband  are  so  changed  that  they  are  no 
longer  in  the  same  social  grade;  or  it  may  be  he 
has  become  dissipated  and  worthless,  and  totally 
unworthy  of  the  girl — still  the  contract  must  be  ful- 
filled; there  is  no  escape  for  the  poor  girl  except 
in  death,  and  too  often  the  wretched  bride  com- 
mits suicide  to  escape  what  she  regards  as  worse 
than  death — companionship  with  a  brutal  tyrant. 
Many  a  sad  story  of  disappointed  hopes  and  cruel 
sufferings  are  unwritten  in  China  as  well  as  in  our 
own  country. 

The  Chinese  law  recognizes  the  right  of  the  par- 
ents to  govern  their  children,  and  gives  them  au- 
thority in  all  matters  pertaining  to  family  govern- 
ment. At  the  same  time  it  protects  the  children 
from  neglect  and  cruelty  on  the  part  of  their  par- 
ents. Much  is  naturally  and  wisely  left  to  parental 
affection.  Any  parent,  who  is  not  a  brute,  desires  to 
see  his  children  happy,  to  see  them  prepared  for  an 
honorable  position  in  society,  and  therefore  treats 
them  kindly,  educates  them  as  far  as  he  can,  and 
encourages  them  to  be  virtuous  and  industrious. 

The  birth  of  a  son  is  always  hailed  with  joy  in 
a  Chinese  home,  but  the  birth  of  a  daughter  is  re- 
garded as  a  misfortune,  and  the  little  stranger  is 
treated  with  neglect.  Thousands  are  cast  out  to 
perish.  I  have  frequently,  during  my  residence 
in  China,  seen  infant  children  lying  out  in  the 
open  fields,  wrapped  in  pieces  of  matting  or  other 


SOCIAL  AND   DOMESTIC   LIFE.  225 

material.  There  is  just  outside  of  the  city  wall, 
at  Shanghai,  a  tower,  known  as  the  "  baby  tower," 
into  which  children  are  thrown.  I  do  not  know 
that  infants  are  ever  thrown  into  it  alive,  but  I  do 
know  that  it  was  used  as  a  depository  for  dead 
children.  Nor  do  I  know  that  the  infants  exposed 
in  the  fields  were  cast  out  alive,  but  I  know  that 
such  was  my  impression.  It  may  be  that  they  were 
the  children  of  the  poor,  who  did  not  feel  able  to 
bury  their  dead.  That  infanticide  exists  in  China 
there  can  be  no  question,  but  to  what  extent  is  a 
matter  of  doubt.  It  is  always  confined  to  female 
children. 

When  a  son  is  born  one  of  the  first  things  his 
parents  do  is  to  give  him  his  first  or  '*  milk  name," 
which  he  retains  until  he  enters  school,  when  he 
receives  his  ''school  name."  On  the  day  ap- 
pointed for  the  ceremony  the  mother  worships  the 
Goddess  of  Mercy,  and  the  boy,  having  his  head 
shaved,  is  brought  into  the  presence  of  friends, 
where  the  father  confers  the  name  and  celebrates 
the  occasion  with  a  feast.  No  such  honor  is  ever 
conferred  on  the  despised  girl.  She  may  go  name- 
less, or  receive,  instead  of  a  name,  a  depreciating 
epithet.  When  a  man  marries  he  adopts  a  third 
name,  by  which  he  is  usually  known  through  life. 
If  appointed  to  office  he  assumes  an  '*  official 
name,"  by  which  he  is  known  to  government. 
The  head  of  each  commercial  firm  takes  a  busi- 
ness name,  by  which  he  is  known  in  business  cir- 
cles; and  old  men  of  fifty,  shopkeepers  and  others, 
15 


(226) 


SOCIAL  AND   DOMESTIC   LIFE.  227 

take  a  "  shop  name,"  which  appears  on  their  sign- 
boards as  the  name  of  the  shop.  When  a  man 
dies  he  receives  still  another  and  last  name  in  the 
**  hall  of  ancestors."  This  multiplicity  of  names 
would  seem  to  make  the  identity  of  the  person  a 
difficult  matter. 

CONVENTIONAL  ETIQUETTE. 

The  elaborate  forms  of  social  etiquette  among 
the  Chinese  appear  to  a  Western  man  exceedingly 
absurd,  and  are  often  made  a  subject  of  mirth. 
These  forms  have,  however,  a  basis  of  good  sense. 
They  are  a  substitute  for  caste  distinctions,  such 
as  exist  in  India.  Men  are  honored  according 
to  their  station  in  society  and  according  to  their 
age.  The  emperor,  being,  according  to  the  gen- 
ius of  the  Chinese  government,  the  representa- 
tive of  heaven,  demands  the  same  form  of  homage 
from  his  subjects  that  is  observed  in  the  wor- 
ship of  the  gods.  The  court  etiquette  is  there- 
fore in  character  a  form  of  religious  worship,  by 
which  the  universal  supremacy  of  the  emperor  is 
recognized.  It  is  a  ritual,  and  should  be  so  un- 
derstood. All  the  officers  of  the  empire  are  his 
representatives,  and  are  therefore  entitled  to  rec- 
ognition as  such;  and  as  the  Chinese  are  con- 
quered subjects,  having  been  subdued  by  the 
Manchoo  Tartars,  their  allegiance  to  the  ruling 
dynasty  must  also  be  recognized  in  all  official 
intercourse;  hence  the  importance  of  observing 
strictly  '*  the  rites  "  ordained  by  the  government. 

There   are   eight  gradations  in  the   ceremonial 


228  HISTORY   OF   THE    CHINESE. 

etiquette.  The  first  is  the  common  salutation 
among  equals  and  friends,  such  as  you  see  on  the 
streets,  in  tea  shops,  etc.  It  is  merely  joining 
your  own  hands  and  raising  them  before  the 
breast,  with  a  slight  inclination  of  the  head.  The 
second  is  a  low  bow,  with  the  hands  thus  clasped. 
The  third,  bending  the  knee,  as  if  about  to  kneel. 
The  fourth,  actual  kneeling.  The  fifth,  kneeling 
and  striking  the  head  on  the  ground.  Sixth, 
kneeling  and  knocking  the  head  three  times  on 
the  ground.  Seventh,  kneeling  and  striking  the 
head  three  times  on  the  ground,  then  standing  up- 
right and  again  kneeling  and  striking  the  head 
three  times  on  the  ground.  The  last  and  highest 
is  kneeling  three  times  and  knocking  the  head 
nine  times  on  the  ground,  or  '*  three  times  three." 
This  is  considered  by  the  government  as  the  high- 
est expression  of  loyalty  to  the  ruling  dynasty,  and 
was  the  form  demanded  of  the  representatives  of 
foreign  governments  a  few  years  ago,  but  never 
submitted  to  by  any  Western  power  having  any 
self-respect.  I  do  not  know  that  the  representa- 
tives of  any  nation,  not  tributary  to  China,  ever 
degraded  themselves  by  such  an  act.  The  ar- 
rogance and  insolence  of  the  Chinese  have  been 
reduced  to  a  decent  respect  for  other  nations,  at 
least  so  far  as  official  etiquette  is  concerned.  The 
hated  foreign  barbarian  has  walked  at  pleasure 
through  the  imperial  courts,  and  dictated  to  the 
haughty  Manchoo  autocrat  the  conditions  of  peace 
and  the  terms  of  treaties. 


SOCIAL  And  domestic  life.  ^ig 

Enough,  perhaps,  has  been  said  of  the  official 
etiquette  of  the  Chinese  government.  Such  mat- 
ters are  not  especially  interesting  to  the  common 
reader. 

The  children  of  the  family,  among  the  better 
class  of  Chinese,  are  carefully  instructed  in  do- 
mestic and  social  manners.  There  are  first  the  re- 
lations of  the  several  members  of  the  family — father 
and  mother,  elder  and  junior  sons,  and  the  daugh- 
ters and  domestics.  There  is  a  manual  of  man- 
ners, called  the  Book  of  Rites,  which  contains 
full  instructions  as  to  the  duties  growing  out  of  the 
family  relations.  As  heretofore  stated,  the  par- 
ents, especially  the  fathers,  are  given  absolute  con- 
trol over  domestic  life  in  the  home,  except  in  mat- 
ters regulated  by  law  or  general  custom.  The 
observance  of  the  rules  laid  down  in  the  Book  of 
Rites  depends,  of  course,  upon  the  degree  of  edu- 
cation and  social  culture  in  the  parents.  To  quote 
the  Book  of  Rites  therefore  is  not  to  say  what  is 
the  actual  character  of  the  home  life  of  the  average 
Chinese  family,  but  what  it  should  be  according 
to  the  "  rites."  The  inner  domestic  life  of  the 
Chinese  has  not  been  observed  by  foreigners  with 
sufficient  minuteness  to  enable  anyone  to  speak 
with  accuracy.  My  own  observation  was  limited 
to  a  casual  view  into  the  domestic  arrangements 
of  a  few  homes  of  the  lower  and  middle  classes. 

Social  life  among  the  people  of  China  is  more 
public,  and  comes  under  the  eye  of  the  stranger 
more  frequently  and  to  an  extent  that  the  domes* 


230  HISTORY   OF   THE   CHINESE. 

tic  life  does  not,  and  we  consequently  know  much 
more  about  it.  The  following  description  of  a  so- 
cial visit,  from  the  pen  of  a  friend  who  has  enjoyed 
exceptional  opportunities  to  observe  Chinese  social 
etiquette,  is  full  and  accurate: 

**A  Chinese  gentleman  in  visiting  his  friend 
goes  in  a  sedan  chair.  As  he  approaches  the 
house  he  takes  out  his  card — a  large  slip  of  red 
paper  on  which  his  name  is  written — and  sends  it 
in  by  the  doorkeeper,  who  carries  it  to  his  master. 
If  his  friend  is  at  home,  the  sedan  is  carried  into 
the  doorway,  where  the  host  meets  him.  The 
guest  steps  out  of  the  sedan,  each  one  advancing 
just  so  far,  bowing  just  so  many  times,  going 
through  the  regulation  ceremon}^,  which  both  par- 
ties understand,  until  they  have  reached  the  head 
of  the  hall,  where  they  are  seated,  the  guest  sit- 
ting on  the  left  hand,  the  place  of  honor  in  China. 
Tea  and  pipes  are  always  presented.  If  the  guest 
inquire  after  the  health  of  the  family,  he  is  ex- 
pected to  begin  with  the  oldest  member;  then  the 
boys  are  inquired  after.  It  is  not  good  manners 
to  ask  about  the  wife,  or  to  mention  her  in  any 
way.  If  she  is  mentioned  at  all  by  her  husband, 
it  is  as  '  the  stupid  one  of  the  inner  chamber.'  The 
children  are  called  '  pigs  '  and  *  puppies.'  A  child 
calls  his  father  *  the  majesty  of  the  family,'  or 
*  prince  of  the  home,'  etc.  When  inquiring  after 
a  father  or  grandfather,  the  guest  is  expected  to 
say,  *  Does  the  venerable  great  man  enjoy  happi- 
ness ?  '    That  is.  How  is  your  father's  health  ?    And 


SOCIAL  AND   DOMESTIC    LIFE.  23 1 

SO  through  the  catalogue  of  persons  and  things 
about  which  it  is  proper  to  speak.  Of  course, 
among  relatives  or  intimate  friends,  this  stilted  eti- 
quette is  omitted,  or  modified  so  as  to  relieve  its 
stiffness  and  formality." 

Private  meals  and  public  feasts  among  the  high- 
er classes  are  exceedingly  formal.  No  ladies  are 
ever  present.  An  invitation  to  dinner  is  written 
on  a  slip  of  red  paper  like  a  visiting  card,  and  sent 
some  days  before  the  time  appointed.  Another 
card  is  sent  on  the  day  itself,  stating  the  hour  of 
dinner,  or  a  servant  comes  to  call  the  guests,  as  in 
the  parable.  (Matt.  xxii.  3,  4. )  The  host,  dressed 
in  his  cap  and  robes,  awaits  the  arrival  of  his 
guests.  After  they  are  all  assembled,  he  invites 
them  to  lay  aside  their  dresses  of  ceremony.  They 
are  then  conducted  into  the  dining  room,  and  are 
seated  by  the  host  according  to  age  or  rank  in  twos 
on  each  side  of  small  uncovered  tables,  and  here 
the  feast  is  served  by  well-trained  domestics — all 
males,  of  course.  The  succession  of  dishes  is  not 
uniform,  and  the  whole  feast  is  regulated  more  by 
local  custom  than  by  any  fixed  general  rules;  yet 
there  is  such  a  sameness  in  the  dishes  and  manner 
of  serving  them,  in  all  parts  of  the  empire,  that  a 
stranger  would  not  perceive  the  slight  variations 
which  mark  the  custom  in  different  localities. 
Usually  the  whole  order  seems  to  be  the  reverse 
of  that  to  which  we  are  accustomed.  The  desserts, 
sweetmeats,  etc.,  are  served  first;  then  a  variety 
of   small  dishes,   sometimes    numbering  as    many 


2^2  HISTORY  OF   THE   CHINESE. 

as  forty,  ending  with  soup.  Among  the  peculiar 
articles  of  diet  exhibited  at  a  Chinese  feast  are 
shark's  fins,  bird's-nest  soup,  and  pigeon  eggs  pre- 
served in  lime.  I  remember  tasting  an  egg  said 
to  be  five  years  old  I  A  more  disgusting  morsel  I 
never  put  into  my  mouth  before  nor  since.  I  im- 
agine now  sometimes  that  I  can  almost  taste  the 
abominable  thing.  The  Chinese  use  a  native  wine 
at  their  feasts,  but  seldom  drink  to  excess. 


•u/ET/^CI* 


CITY   WALL   AND  CANAL. 


(233) 


CHAPTER  XX. 
Festivals  and  Amusements. 

THE  principal  festivals  observed  by  the  Chinese 
are  New  Tear^  Ching  Mmg — or  worshiping 
at  the  tombs* — the  Two  Solstices,  and  the  festival 
of  Dragon  Boats.  The  New  Year  is  a  season  of 
universal  festivity.  Its  approach  is  heralded  by 
great  preparations  in  every  place  throughout  the 
land.  In  the  cities,  on  all  the  main  streets,  curi- 
ous and  costly  articles  are  exposed  for  sale,  some- 
times as  a  mere  business  speculation,  and  in  many 
instances  as  a  matter  of  necessity,  in  order  to  pro- 
cure money  for  the  approaching  festivities.  It  is 
customary  to  make  presents  to  employees  at  this 
happy  season ;  shopmen  send  presents  to  their  cus- 
tomers as  an  acknowledgment  of  indebtedness  for 
the  business  favors  of  the  past  year;  friends  also 
exchange  tokens.  Just  before  New  Year  there  is  a 
*' general  cleaning,"  washing,  scouring,  etc.;  so 
that  even  in  China  they  have  some  ideas  of  clean- 
liness, at  least  of  external  cleanliness,  once  a  year. 
New  Year  is  general  ''  pay  day"  in  China,  and 
anyone  who  would  maintain  a  respectable  stand- 
ing as  an  honest  or  safe  business  man  must  be 
able  to  settle  with  all  his  creditors  in  a  satisfac- 
tory manner.     It  is  a  busy  day  with  shopkeepers, 

*See  "Ancestral  Worship" — Williams,  Davis,  etc. 
(234) 


i^ESTIVALS   AND   AMUSEMENTS.  :^35 

who  may  be  seen  going  to  and  fro  at  all  hours  of 
the  day,  and  even  through  the  night;  for  by  an  in- 
nocent little  fiction  it  is  considered  daylight  with 
the  creditor  seeking  his  debtor  as  long  as  there  is 
light;  and  when  the  sun  has  ceased  to  give  the 
light,  the  creditor  takes  his  lantern  and  thus  fur- 
nishes his  own  light  and  pursues  the  debtor  until 
he  gets  his  money  or  loses  his  case.  This  cus- 
tom of  yearly  settlements  saves  many  a  man  from 
bankruptcy,  avoids  lawsuits,  and  prevents  misun- 
derstandings in  the  settlement  of  accounts.  The 
relatives  of  a  man  in  business  are  held  to  certain 
responsibilities  for  his  debts;  so  that  if  he  seems 
disposed  to  contract  obligations  beyond  his  means 
to  meet  them,  they  can  give  notice  to  his  creditors, 
and  he  is  forced  to  make  an  assignment  or  exhibit 
assets  sufficient  to  satisfy  all  parties.  The  usages 
to  which  I  have  referred  may  not  be  common  in 
all  parts  of  the  empire,  but  that  New-year's  day 
is  general  *'pay  day"  throughout  the  land  I  think 
is  true.* 

In  some  places  the  family  sit  down  to  a  sub- 
stantial supper  on  New-year's  eve  with  a  pan  of 
charcoal  under  the  table  as  a  supposed  prevent- 
ive against  fires.  After  the  supper  is  ended  the 
wooden  lamp-stools  are  brought  out  and  spread 
upon  the  pavement  with  a  pile  of  gold  and  silver 
paper,  which  is  set  on  fire  after  all  the  demons  have 
been  warned  off  by  a  volley  of  firecrackers.  The 
embers  are  then  divided  into  twelve    heaps,   and 

*See  "Middle  Kingdom." 


23^  HISTORY  OF   THE   CHINESE. 

their  manner  of  going  out  carefully  watched  as  a 
prognostic  of  the  kind  of  weather  to  be  expected 
during  the  ensuing  year.  Other  superstitious  cer- 
emonies peculiar  to  the  locality  are  observed  by  in- 
dividuals and  families. 

Devout  persons  are  as  careful  to  settle  with  the 
gods  as  with  their  human  creditors  at  this  season. 
A  few  days  before  the  new  year  the  temples  are 
crowded  with  worshipers,  both  men  and  women, 
rich  and  poor.  Some  fast  and  engage  the  priests 
to  pray  for  them  that  their  sins  may  be  forgiven, 
and  that  they  may  be  able  to  enter  upon  the  new 
year  with  a  clean  record.  Many  ornament  their 
houses  by  pasting  papers  upon  the  doors  and 
walls,  signifying  their  desire  that  *'  The  Five  Bless- 
ings," which  contain  the  sum  of  all  human  felicity, 
may  abide  with  them  during  the  year.  These  bless- 
ings are  '*  longevity,  riches,  health,  love  of  virtue, 
and  a  natural  death."  These  papers  are  pasted 
on  every  boat,  every  oar,  on  bow  and  stern,  and 
every  available  place  about  all  classes  and  sizes 
of  boats.  They  are  placed  on  farmhouses,  on 
trees,  on  boards,  posts,  etc.  The  constant  explo- 
sion of  firecrackers  and  the  beating  of  gongs 
make  day  and  night  hideous.  The  demons  of 
discord  and  strife,  and  all  that  have  evil  intentions 
toward  men  or  their  families,  are  supposed  to  be 
frightened  far  away  by  this  horrible  uproar.  New- 
year's  day  is  also  a  great  occasion  for  jugglers, 
actors,  and  mountebanks  of  all  kinds. 

The  Feast  of  Dragon  Boats  occurs  on  the  fifth 


FESTIVALS   AND   AMUSEMENTS.  237 

day  of  the  fifth  month,  and  is  a  lively  festival. 
Pairs  of  long,  narrow  boats,  holding  sixty  or  more 
rowers,  race  up  and  down  the  rivers,  making  a 
great  clamor,  as  if  searching  for  some  one  who 
had  been  drowned.  This  festival  was  instituted 
about  B.C.  300,  in  memory  of  a  statesman  who 
drowned  himself  in  the  Yang-tse-Kiang.  Search 
was  made  for  his  body  by  the  people,  who  loved 
him  for  his  virtues,  and  this  mode  of  remember- 
ing him  has  been  continued  ever  since.  The  bow 
of  the  boat  is  ornamented  with  the  dragon's  head, 
and  the  men  beat  gongs  and  drums  and  wave  flags. 

The  Feast  of  Lanterns^  which  takes  place  at  the 
first  full  moon  in  each  year,  is  a  dull  and  uninter- 
esting festival.  How  it  originated  is  unknown.  It 
is  known,  however,  to  have  been  observed  since 
A.D.  700. 

There  are  other  festivals  celebrated  annually 
by  this  singular  people,  but  none  that  would  be 
especially  interesting  to  my  young  readers.  (See 
chapter  on  *' Agriculture  " — emperor  plowing, etc.) 

AMUSEMENTS  OF  THE  CHINESE. 

The  Chinese  have  a  childish  fondness  for  shows 
and  public  parades  of  all  kinds.  They  are  also 
fond  of  games,  especially  games  of  chance.  They 
are  devoted  to  gambling.  A  boy  prefers  to  risk 
his  own  cash  on  the  cast  of  a  die  to  simply  buy- 
ing a  cake  without  trying  the  chance  of  getting  it 
for  nothing.  Gaming  houses  are  opened  by  scores. 
Tables  with  the  implements  of  gambling  stand  at 
almost  every   street   corner,   and  in  every  public 


238  HISTORY   OF   THE    CHINESE. 

place.  It  is  said  that  the  women  in  the  privacy  of 
their  homes  are  devoted  to  cards  and  dominoes; 
and  everybody  who  has  been  in  a  Chinese  city 
knows  how  universal  certain  forms  of  gambling 
arc.  *' Cricket  fighting"  is  a  common  Chinese 
amusement.  Two  crickets  are  put  into  a  basin, 
and  teased  with  a  straw  till  they  rush  at  each  other 
in  the  utmost  fury,  crying  in  a  sharp  and  angry 
tone  as  they  engage  in  the  fight.  Cash  (money) 
is  staked  upon  the  result  of  the  battle  by  the  by- 
standers. Usually  one  of  the  combatants  loses  a 
limb,  sometimes  his  life,  in  the  fierce  conflict. 
Little  cages,  made  of  bamboo,  silver,  and  some- 
times of  gold,  are  used  by  rich  young  men  to 
carry  their  game  crickets.  Quails  are  also  trained 
to  fight,  like  chicken  cocks  in  this  country.  Such 
is  the  mania  for  betting  that  a  number  of  gentle- 
men sitting  at  a  tea  table  will  stake  their  money  on 
the  direction  in  which  a  certain  fly  will  go  when  it 
takes  wing.  One  man  will  perhaps  say  **  west;  " 
another  will  say  "  south;  "  another,  "  east,"  etc. 
The  fly  must  not  be  disturbed,  but  left  to  follow 
its  own  impulses. 

The  flying  of  paper  kites  is  a  favorite  amuse- 
ment of  men  as  well  as  children.  The  old  man 
seventy  years  of  age  is  seen  seated  on  the  city  wall, 
or  some  other  elevated  position,  flying  his  ''  but- 
terfly  kite  ' '  with  as  much  apparent  pleasure  as  the 
ten-year-old  boy  that  sits  near  him  with  his  long 
*'  centipede  kite."  1  have  seen  kites  of  the  latter 
shape   one   hundred  feet  in  length,  writhing  and 


FESTIVALS   AND   AMUSEMENTS.  239 

squirming  in  the  air  at  a  great  height.  It  requires 
much  skill  to  fly  certain  kinds  of  kites.  Some  of 
the  more  common  forms  have  a  light  bamboo  bow, 
with  a  silk  cord  or  bow  string  attached  to  them  in 
such  manner  as  to  imitate  a  coarse  ^olian  harp  in 
sound.  It  is  not  unpleasant  to  hear  a  number  of 
these  harps  singing  in  the  upper  air.  I  know  of 
nothing  among  the  Chinese  more  characteristic  of 
their  social  manners  than  the  simplicity  of  their 
amusements.  They  are  children  in  this  matter — 
easily  amused.  They  have  never  been  fond  of 
gladiatorial  sports,  or  of  any  form  of  violent  or 
dangerous  exercise.  Fighting  among  themselves 
seldom  occurs.  When  two  persons  fall  out,  in- 
stead of  pounding  each  other,  or  seeking  to  take 
each  other's  lives,  they  enter  into  a  stormy  and 
wordy  discussion,  in  which  opprobrious  epithets 
are  freely  exchanged.  They  seem  to  be  greatly 
excited,  scream  at  the  top  of  their  voices,  gesticu- 
late violently,  rush  toward  each  other  until  their 
noses  almost  touch,  and  then  retreat  and  take 
breath,  to  repeat  the  same  violent  and  absurd  per- 
formance. However  terrible  their  threats  or  alarm- 
ing their  gestures,  they  seldom  touch  each  other. 
Duels  are  unknown,  and  assassinations  infrequent. 
It  is  said  that  where  a  dispute  becomes  so  serious 
that  blood  must  be  shed,  one  of  the  parties  takes 
his  own  life  instead  of  his  enemy's,  and  thus  be- 
comes a  malignant  ghost  with  greatly  increased 
powers  to  avenge  himself  on  his  adversary.  The 
pne  who   survives  is  stigmatized  by  his  neighbors 


240  HISTORY   OF   THE   CHINESE. 

as  a  murderer,  one  whose  cruel  treatment  has 
driven  a  fellow-man  out  of  the  world.  The  living 
man  can  do  his  enemy  no  more  harm,  while  the 
ghost  of  the  dead  man  has  superhuman  powers  of 
evil,  and  can  torment  his  enemy  at  will;  he  can 
destroy  his  property,  life,  happiness,  and  every- 
thing good  belonging  to  him. 

Among  the  persons  employed  to  entertain  pri- 
vate parties,  or  the  general  public,  none  is  more 
popular  than  the  professional  juggler.  He  is  seen 
everywhere — in  the  homes  of  the  rich,  on  the 
public  square,  in  the  vicinity  of  temples,  in  vil- 
lages, hamlets,  and  country  places.  Some  of  his 
*'  tricks  "  are  wonderful.  In  the  public  square  at 
Shanghai  I  have  frequently  seen  an  old  juggler 
perform.  One  of  his  most  popular  feats  was  to  take 
a  Chinese  dinner — with  all  the  furniture  for  a  small 
table,  chopsticks,  plates,  cups,  spoons,  etc.,  and 
all  the  food — out  of  an  empty  tea  pot.  Of  course 
I  knew  that  it  was  all  sleight  of  hand,  but  it  was  so 
cleverly  done  that  I  sometimes  felt  almost  sure  that 
it  was  a  reality.  This  performance  is  one  com- 
mon among  Chinese  jugglers,  and  is  not  consid- 
ered specially  wonderful.  The  Japanese  and  Hin- 
doo jugglers  are  said  to  be  much  more  expert  than 
the  Chinese. 

'*  Theatrical  entertainments  are  very  common 
among  the  Chinese,  and  when  public  are  usually 
connected  with  some  religious  festival  in  honor  of 
the  god  before  whose  temple  they  are  exhibited. 
They  are  generally  gotten  up  by  the  priests,  who 


FESTIVALS  AND   AMUSEMENTS.  24 1 

send  their  neophytes  around  with  a  subscription 
paper,  and  then  engage  as  large  and  skillful  a  band 
of  performers  as  their  funds  will  allow.  Parties 
of  actors  and  tumblers  are  numerous,  and  can  be 
had  cheaply?  and  their  performances  frequently 
relieve  the  tedium  of  private  life  of  rich  families 
who  engage  them  to  come  to  their  houses.  The 
rich  sometimes  erect  private  theaters  and  employ 
actors  to  perform  for  the  amusement  of  the  family 
and  friends.  The  scenery  of  a  Chinese  theater  is 
very  simple,  consisting  merely  of  painted  mats  ar- 
ranged on  the  back  and  sides  of  the  stage,  a  few 
tables,  chairs,  or  beds,  which  successively  serve  for 
many  purposes,  and  are  brought  in  and  out  of  the 
robing  room.  The  orchestra  is  seated  on  the  side 
of  the  stage.  The  dresses  are  made  of  gorgeous 
silks,  and  present  the  best  specimen  of  ancient 
Chinese  costumes  now  to  be  seen."*  The  fol- 
lowing description  of  a  play,  witnessed  by  a  for- 
eigner several  years  ago,  will  give  the  reader  some 
idea  of  the  Chinese  drama:  **  The  first  scene  was 
intended  to  represent  the  happiness  and  splendor 
of  beings  who  inhabit  the  upper  regions,  with  the 
sun  and  moon,  and  the  elements  curiously  person- 
ified, playing  around  them.  The  man  who  per- 
sonated the  sun  held  a  round  image  of  the  sun's 
disk,  while  the  female  who  acted  the  part  of  the 
moon  had  a  crescent  in  her  hand.  The  actors  took 
care  to  move  so  as  to  imitate  the  conjunctions  and 
oppositions  of  the  heavenly  bodies   as  they  move 

*Dr.  Williarqs.  "  ~~^ 

16 


242  HISTORY   OF   THE    CHINESE. 

around  in  their  apparent  orbits.  The  thunderer 
wielded  an  ax,  and  leaped  and  dashed  about  in  a 
variety  of  extraordinary  somersaults.  After  a  few 
turns  the  monarch  who  had  been  so  highly  hon- 
ored as  to  find  a  place,  through  the  partiality  of  a 
mountain  nymph,  in  the  abodes  of  the  happy,  be- 
gins to  feel  that  no  height  of  good  fortune  can  se- 
cure a  mortal  against  the  common  calamities  of 
this  frail  life.  A  wicked  courtier  disguises  him- 
self in  a  tiger's  skin,  and  in  this  garb  imitates  the 
fierce  animal  in  his  actions.  He  rushes  into  the 
apartments  of  the  ladies,  frightens  them  out  of  their 
wits,  and  throws  the  heir  apparent  into  the  moat. 
The  sisters  hurry  into  the  royal  presence,  and, 
casting  themselves  on  the  ground,  divulge  the  sad 
intelligence  that  a  tiger  has  carried  off  the  prince, 
who,  it  appears,  was  the  son  of  the  mountain 
nymph  who  had  befriended  the  monarch.  The 
loss  of  his  son  so  affects  the  monarch  that  he  ab- 
dicates his  throne,  and  through  the  intrigues  of  an 
artful  woman  selects  a  fool  as  his  successor.  The 
king  dies,  the  fool  is  frightened  at  his  position,  and 
the  artful  woman  has  things  her  own  way.  The 
state  is  plunged  into  civil  discord  at  home  and 
dangerous  wars  abroad." 

An  English  writer  who  was  for  many  years  a 
resident  in  China,  and  who  studied  the  social  life 
of  the  people  with  great  care,  says  of  the  Chinese 
stage  that  "the  morals  of  the  pieces  exhibited  in 
their  theaters  are  better  than  the  acting  which  is 
sometimes  seen  in  the  West.     No  indecent  expo- 


FESTIVALS   AND  AMUSEMENTS.  243 

sure  of  the  person  is  ever  seen,  such  as  ballet  dan- 
cers, etc.  The  female  characters  are  assumed  by 
men  and  boys.  The  audience  stand  in  front  of  the 
stage;  it  may  be  in  the  hot  sun.  The  police  are 
always  on  hand  to  preserve  order,  but  their  serv- 
ices are  seldom  required,  for  the  Chinese  are  a 
peaceable  and  order-loving  people." 

The  more  manly  and  active  sports,  such  as  bowl- 
ing alley,  cricket  match,  rowing,  or  any  of  the  ath- 
letic games  of  the  West,  are  not  popular  with  the 
Chinese ;  they  prefer  to  exhibit  their  strength  and 
skill  in  lifting  heavy  weights,  hurling  large  stones, 
and  such  like  exercises. 

The  amusements  of  the  Chinese  which  I  wit- 
nessed were  only  such  as  are  exhibited  out  of  doors. 
I  never  entered  any  of  the  '*  dens,"  except  an 
opium  shop,  and  that  only  once.  I  never  was  in 
a  theater  at  home  or  abroad,  and  saw  the  Chinese 
plays  only  because  they  were  performed  openly 
on  the  street,  like  the  tricks  of  the  jugglers. 

OPIUM  SMOKING. 

It  may  seem  a  little  out  of  logical  order  to  class 
**  opium  smoking"  with  Chinese  amusements; 
but  I  do  not  see  a  more  appropriate  place  for  it. 
It  is  regarded  by  its  devotees  as  one  of  the  great- 
est pleasures  of  life  until  the  third  stage  of  expe- 
rience has  been  reached,  and  the  victim  enters  the 
"  regions  of  the  lost." 

Opium  smoking  in  China  is  the  national  form  of 
intemperance,  and  is  one  of  the  most  debauching 
and  ruinous  vices  ever  practiced  by  any  people. 


244  HISTORY   OF  THE   CHINESE. 

Dr.  Smith,  of  Penang,  who  had  every  opportu- 
nity to  observe  and  study  the  subject,  says:  "The 
baleful  effects  of  this  habit  on  the  human  consti- 
tution are  particularly  displayed  by  stupor,  forget- 
fulness,  general  deterioration  of  all  the  mental 
faculties,  emaciation,  debility,  sallow  complexion, 
lividness  of  the  lips  and  eyelids,  languor  and  lack- 
luster of  eye,  and  appetite  either  destroyed  or  de- 
praved." Another  writer  says:  *'  It  exhausts  the 
animal  spirits,  impedes  the  regular  performance 
of  business,  wastes  the  flesh  and  blood,  dissipates 
every  kind  of  property,  renders  the  person  ill- 
favored,  promotes  obscenity,  discloses  secrets, 
violates  the  laws,  attacks  the  vitals,  and  ends  in  a 
horrible  death."  Dr.  Williams,  speaking  of  the 
habit,  says:  *'  The  thirst  and  burning  sensation  in 
the  throat  which  the  wretched  sufferer  feels,  only 
to  be  removed  by  a  repetition  of  the  dose,  proves 
one  of  the  strongest  links  in  his  chain.  At  this 
stage  of  the  habit  his  case  is  almost  hopeless.  If 
the  pipe  be  delayed  too  long,  vertigo,  complete 
prostration,  and  discharge  of  water  from  the  eyes 
ensue;  if  entirely  withheld,  coldness  and  aching 
pains  are  felt  over  the  body,  and  death  soon  closes 
the  scene." 

Suicide  is  often  committed  in  China  by  swallow- 
ing opium.  A  woman  becomes  angry  at  her  hus- 
band, or  is  displeased  with  her  parents,  and  takes 
opium,  and  unless  relieved  is  soon  dead.  Opium 
imparts  no  benefit  to  the  smoker,  but  injures  his 
health,  beclouds  his  mind,  and  unfits  him  for  any 


UNIVERSITY, 
FESTIVALS   AND   AMUSEMENTS.  245 

useful  occupation.  One  of  the  greatest  difficulties 
with  which  the  Christian  missionary  has  to  con- 
tend in  China  is  the  almost  universal  habit  of 
opium  smoking.  I  remember  that  while  I  was  in 
China  an  effort  was  made  by  the  missionaries  to 
ascertain  what  proportion  of  the  male  population 
of  China  was  addicted  to  the  habit,  and  my  rec- 
ollection is  that  the  proportion  was  supposed  to  be 
eight  out  of  every  ten !  After  a  Chinaman  has 
contracted  the  habit  there  is  little  hope  that  he  will 
ever  reform.  Of  the  few  apostates  among  native 
Christians,  the  majority,  it  is  said,  had  been  opium 
smokers.  On  the  contrary,  reformed  smokers, 
cured  by  God's  grace,  are  among  the  most  sin- 
cere and  active  believers  in  the  native  Church. 

I  shall  not  attempt  to  describe  the  manner  of 
preparing  and  smoking  this  poisonous  drug.  It 
is,  like  drinking  whisky,  a  disgusting  and  demor- 
alizing sight.  A  madhouse  is  a  more  cheerful 
place  than  an  opium  den.  Indeed,  nothing  can 
be  more  revolting  than  one  of  these  **  Chinese 
hells."  Yet,  besotted  by  opium  as  China  is,  the 
blessed  gospel  has  power  to  heal  and  to  save  its 
millions. 


PUNISHMENT    IN    SCHOOL. 


(246) 


CHAPTER  XXI. 

Superstitions  of  the  Chinese. 

THE  Chinese  are  Asiatics,  and  as  such  given  to 
superstition.  Some  one  has  said  that  "  God 
committed  to  the  four  great  nations  of  history  the 
education  of  the  human  race.  To  the  Jews  was 
assigned  the  training  of  the  conscience,  or  moral 
sense,  of  mankind;  to  the  Asiatics,  the  imagina- 
tion; to  the  Greeks,  the  aesthetic  faculties;  and  to 
the  Romans,  the  development  of  the  will  power."* 
However  this  maybe,  we  find  these  peculiar  char- 
acteristics predominant  in  the  four  great  races. 
To  the  Jews  God  delivered  the  moral  law,  and 
made  them  the  custodians  of  revealed  truth,  so 
that  *' salvation  is  of  the  Jews."  The  Hindoos 
have  cultivated  the  imagination.  They  have  rev- 
eled in  mysticism,  reHgious  fanaticism,  and  in  all 
forms  of  metaphysical  speculation.  Most  of  the 
heresies  that  have  disturbed  the  peace  of  the  re- 
ligious and  philosophical  world  have  had  their 
origin  in  Asia.  Even  the  stolid  and  practical 
Chinese  have  given  evidence  of  their  Asiatic  birth 
in  their  fondness  for  the  fantastic  superstitions 
that  disfigure  all  their  systems  of  belief. 

Not  content   with  three    systems  of   religion^ 
Buddhism,  Confucianism,  and  Taoism — they  have 

*  Draper's  "  Intellectual  Development  of  Europe." 

(247) 


248  HISTORY  OF  THE   CHINESE » 

"gods  many"  besides  those  belonging  to  these 
Systems.  Among  those  most  generally  worshiped 
by  the  people,  without  respect  to  any  religious  sect, 
are  heaven  and  earth.*  These  are  supposed  to  be 
the  authors  of  all  things,  **  the  father  and  mother 
of  men  and  things,"  and  are  therefore  objects  of 
worship.  This  worship  is  usually  performed  with- 
out the  intervention  of  the  priests — a  sort  of  do- 
mestic service.  In  some  families  it  is  performed 
night  and  morning;  with  others,  only  on  special 
occasions.  The  father  of  the  family  usually  per- 
forms the  ceremony.  He  takes  a  bunch  of  incense 
in  his  hand  and  stands  in  the  door  of  his  house. 
When  the  smoke  of  the  incense  begins  to  rise,  he 
bows  reverently  toward  the  earth  and  repeats  a 
short  prayer. 

In  some  parts  of  the  empire  the  farmer,  or  the 
carpenter,  before  breaking  the  soil  for  sowing 
grain,  building  a  house,  or  digging  a  well,  gives 
formal  notice  to  the  earth,  asking  pardon  for  dis- 
figuring or  wounding  the  face  of  the  dear  "  moth- 
er," declaring  that  he  would  not  dare  to  do  so 
were  it  not  an  absolute  necessity.  Sometimes  a 
priest  is  called  in  to  read  prayers  and  otherwise 
conciliate  the  local  deity  that  presides  over  the 
ground  to  be  disturbed  by  the  proposed  labor. 

There  are  man}^  other  occasions  when  it  is 
thought  necessary  to  propitiate  the  earth  by  cer- 
tain religious  ceremonies.  It  is  often  difficult  to 
ascertain  what  the  devotee  means  by  the  rites  he 

*Culbertson:  "Religions  of  China." 


SUPERSTITIONS  OF  THE  CHINESE.  249 

performs.  If  you  ask  him  he  will  probably  answer, 
*' Custom;"  and  there  the  information  ends. 

The  God  of  the  Kitchen  is  an  object  of  univer- 
sal reverence;  or,  perhaps  I  should  rather  say,  of 
universal  fear.  No  family  would  feel  safe  without 
a  shrine  for  this  god  over  the  cooking  range ;  and 
yet  he  is  regarded  not  as  a  friend  and  patron,  but 
as  an  uncanny  spy,  who  sees  and  knows  all  that 
takes  place  in  the  house  during  the  year,  and  who 
makes  an  annual  report  to  the  powers  above, 
''naught  concealing"  or  ''covering  over  with 
friendly  gloss."  The  image  of  this  god  is  not 
made  of  wood  or  stone,  but  is  simply  a  broad  strip 
of  paper  on  which  the  uncouth  features  of  the 
deity  are  printed.  His  term  of  office  expires  with 
the  end  of  the  year,  when  he  is  sent  off  in  flames 
to  the  regions  above,  and  his  successor — a  new 
paper  image — is  installed  with  due  ceremonies, 
and  another  year  of  espionage  begins. 

The  Rain  Dragon  is  another  creature  of  the 
imagination  to  which  the  Chinese  render  homage. 
They  believe  that  there  is  a  great  dragon  some- 
where above  the  earth,  in  the  region  of  the  clouds, 
that  gives  or  withholds  rain  at  his  will.  If  he  is 
offended  by  the  sins  of  the  people,  especially  by 
the  unfaithfulness  of  the  rulers,  there  is  no  rain. 
If  the  drought  be  long  continued,  and  a  famine 
be  probable,  there  is  great  alarm  throughout  the 
threatened  district,  and  the  people  look  to  their 
rulers  for  relief.  One  of  the  measures  adopted  by 
the   magistrates  is  a  proclamation  forbidding  the 


250  HISTORY   OF   THE   CHINESE. 

slaughter  of  animals.  They  first  forbid  the  slaugh- 
ter of  the  larger  animals;  but  if  the  drought  be 
continued,  the  prohibition  extends  to  poultry,  and 
even  to  fish.  This  prohibition  is  not  to  enforce  a 
general  fast,  but  to  show  respect  for  the  Buddhist 
doctrine  which  forbids  the  taking  of  life.  Meat 
that  has  already  been  slaughtered  may  be  eaten  in 
any  quantity.  There  is  no  intention  on  the  part  of 
the  people  to  exercise  self-denial. 

If  rain  does  not  follow  the  arrest  of  the  slaugh- 
ter of  animals,  then  other  measures  are  resorted 
to,  such  as  processions  in  which  a  great  image  of 
the  dragon  is  conspicuous.  The  magistrates  ap- 
pear in  the  processions  with  signs  of  mourning 
upon  their  persons.  They  visit  the  temples  where 
they  prostrate  themselves,  offer  prayers,  with  con- 
fession of  sin,  not  only  on  their  own  behalf  but  as 
the  official  representatives  of  the  people.  Some- 
times, in  seasons  of  great  distress  because  of  the 
drought,  the  idols  in  the  temples  are  brought  out  of 
their  cool  retreats  and  exposed  in  the  sun,  that 
they  may  know  how  hot  and  dry  it  is.  I  witnessed 
a  scene  like  this  in  the  city  of  Shanghai,  China,  in 
1856,  during  a  season  of  protracted  drought.  The 
magistrates  said  the  gods  seemed  to  be  indifferent 
to  the  miseries  of  the  people,  and  did  not  believe 
that  the  land  was  burning  up  under  a  rainless  sky. 
They  were  therefore  dragged  out  of  the  temples 
and  placed  in  the  public  square,  where  they  could 
feel  the  full  force  of  the  sun's  heat.  After  a  time 
rain  fell,  and  the  people  believed  it  was  because 


SUPERSTITIONS   OF  THE   CHINESE.  25 1 

the  gods  were  made  to  realize  the  true  condition 
of  things !  The  Rain  Dragon  is  worshiped  only 
when  his  help  is  needed.  In  ordinary  circumstan- 
ces he  is  entirely  neglected. 

The  God  of  Thunder  is  one  of  the  deities  which 
the  Chinese  worship  on  occasions  when  he  man- 
ifests himself  in  the  thunder  storm  or  tempest. 
They  are  greatly  alarmed  when  they  hear  his  aw- 
ful voice,  as  they  believe,  '*  tearing  the  clouds  of 
heaven  asunder."  Many  observe  a  fast  on  the 
day  in  which  they  hear  thunder.  It  is  a  common 
belief  among  the  people  that  no  one  is  ever  struck 
by  lightning  who  has  not  committed  some  crime 
for  which  the  law  has  not  or  cannot  punish  him. 
They  say,  however,  that  this  god  has  a  great  dis- 
like for  snakes,  and  that  it  may  happen  sometimes, 
when  he  is  hurling  his  bolts  at  a  serpent  concealed 
under  a  house,  that  he  may  strike  one  of  the  in- 
mates ;  but  this  is  purely  an  accident,  and  an  excep- 
tion to  the  rule.  The  image  of  this  god  is  an  enor- 
mous creature,  resembling  a  huge  giant  with  many 
fantastic  additions.  With  one  hand  he  beats  a 
great  drum,  and  in  the  other  he  holds  a  number  of 
thunderbolts.  He  is  a  fearful  monster  in  appear- 
ance. 

The  God  of  Pire  is  an  object  of  special  fear. 
Large  temples  are  erected  to  him,  and  at  the  vernal 
equinox  and  winter  solstice  he  is  worshiped  with 
expensive  ceremonies.  Business  men  give  liber- 
ally to  the  support  of  this  god,  as  men  in  our  coun- 
try give  to  insurance  companies,  to  protect  them- 


252  HISTORY   OF  THE   CHINESE. 

selves  against  loss  by  fire.  On  one  occasion  at 
Shanghai,  in  1855,  ^  fire  broke  out  in  the  busi- 
ness portion  of  the  city  and  fifty  thousand  dollars' 
worth  of  property  was  destroyed.  Those  who 
had  property  in  the  vicinity  of  the  fire,  but  which 
escaped  destruction,  spent  some  two  hundred  dol- 
lars in  thank  offerings  as  an  expression  of  their 
gratitude  to  the  God  of  Fire  for  protecting  their 
property.  It  so  happened,  however,  that  another 
fire  visited  the  neighborhood  some  weeks  after- 
wards, and  the  property  of  the  men  who  had 
made  the  thank  offering  was  consumed.  This 
greatly  enraged  them,  and  they  vowed  that  they 
would  never  worship  the  God  of  Fire  again.  Dur- 
ing the  fire  the  shrine  of  the  principal  deity  in  the 
neighborhood  was  consumed  and  his  godship  per- 
ished in  the  flames  I  One  would  think  that  such 
proofs  of  the  folly  of  trusting  in  idols  would  drive 
the  people  away  from  their  altars.  But  where 
should  they  go?  They  do  not  know  the  true  God. 
Besides,  **  they  are  mad  upon  their  idols." 

Calling  Back  the  S fir  it. — The  Chinese,  no 
matter  where  they  die,  are  anxious  to  be  buried  in 
their  native  soil ;  not  because  they  love  their  own 
country  so  much,  but  because  they  desire  to  lie 
where  their  descendants  can  visit  their  tombs  and 
perform  the  **  ancestral  rites,"  without  which  their 
spirits  would  have  neither  friends,  food,  nor  cloth- 
ing in  the  next  world.  With  no  one  to  worship  at 
their  tombs,  they  would  be  of  all  the  spirits  in  hades 
the   most  miserable.     This  is  the  reason  why  so 


SUPERSTITIONS   OF  THE   CHINESE.  253 

many  bodies  of  Chinese  are  sent  from  California 
back  to  China  for  burial. 

When  a  Chinese  dies  abroad,  his  body  is  always 
carried  to  his  native  place,  if  the  family  can  bear 
the  expense.  But  it  would  be  a  sad  thing  if  the 
spirit  should  be  unable  or  unwilling  to  accompany 
the  body ;  they  have  therefore  a  ceremony  by  which 
the  spirit  is  persuaded  to  return  and  remain  with 
the  body.  If  one  is  lost  at  sea,  the  friends  go  as 
near  as  possible  to  the  place  where  he  was  lost, 
and  call  back  the  spirit.  Sometimes  immediately 
after  the  breath  leaves  the  body  of  one  who  dies  at 
home,  a  member  of  the  family  takes  some  part  of  the 
deceased's  wearing  apparel,  and  going  to  the  door 
calls  in  tender,  pleading  tones  to  the  spirit  to  come 
back.  If  the  person  supposed  to  be  dead  should 
revive,  the  friends  believe  that  the  spirit  heard  the 
call  and  returned  to  the  body.  The  priests  are  fre- 
quently employed  to  assist  in  the  ceremony. 

When  a  child  dies  under  sixteen  years  of  age, 
quite  a  different  performance  takes  place,  one  that 
nothing  less  cruel  than  heathenism  could  tolerate. 
This  is  called  '*  sweeping  away  the  spirit."  The 
object  is  to  frighten  away  the  spirit  of  the  child, 
that  it  may  not  trouble  the  family.  This  unnatural 
and  foolish  conceit  is  based  on  the  belief  that  the 
child  suffered  an  injury  or  wrong  from  one  of  the 
parents,  in  a  former  state  of  existence,  and  that  it 
was  sent  into  the  family  to  avenge  the  wrong. 
They  wish,  therefore,  so  thoroughly  to  frighten  its 
little  ghost  by  firing  crackers  and  beating  drums 


254  HISTORY   OF   THE   CHINESE. 

that  it  will  never  venture  to  return.  When  a  child 
dies  in  a  Chinese  family  there  is  no  lamentation, 
no  weeping  or  wailing,  as  when  a  grown  person 
dies.  No  special  care  is  taken  of  its  little  body. 
It  is  treated  in  all  respects  as  a  mere  **  thing  " — 
classed  with  the  lower  animals.  There  are,  how- 
ever, mothers  in  China,  in  whom  the  natural  ma- 
ternal instinct  is  too  strong  to  be  crushed  out  by 
even  the  heartless  teachings  of  heathenism — they 
love  their  children.  In  some  places,  where  two 
children,  betrothed  by  their  parents,  die  before 
the  marriage  ceremony  is  performed,  their  spirits 
are  married.  The  tablets  of  the  children  are  used 
as  representatives  of  the  little  ones,  and  they  are 
married  in  due  form.  Sometimes  the  parents  of 
dead  children  enter  into  marriage  contracts  for 
the  deceased  babies,  and  their  spirits  are  supposed 
to  be  united  in  the  spirit  world  I 

Nearly  all  the  Chinese  superstitions  are  in  some 
way  connected  with  the  spirits  of  the  dead,  and  it 
may  be  said  truly,  I  think,  that  they  are  "  in  bond- 
age through  fear  "  of  ghosts  all  their  lives.  They 
believe  the  air  to  be  full  of  spirits,  that  they  are 
going  to  and  fro  night  and  day ;  and  what  seems 
strange,  they  fear  the  spirits  of  their  dead  friends 
seemingly  as  much  as  any  others.  All  disembod- 
ied spirits  are  supposed  to  be  malignant,  and  to 
possess  great  power  to  harm  men  in  the  flesh. 
I  have  perhaps  furnished  enough  examples  of  pop- 
ular superstitions  for  the  present  purpose.  I  will, 
however,  give  some  of  a  different  character  illus- 


SUPERSTITIONS   OF  THE   CHINESE.  255 

trating  the  Chinese  ideas  of  astrology,  lucky  and 
unlucky  days,  etc.* 

Worship  of  the  Stars. — Astrology  has  been  a 
subject  of  study  in  China  from  a  very  early  day. 
Many  of  the  stars  are  worshiped.  Temples  are 
erected  to  the  "  Seven  Precious  Ones;  ''  that  is, 
the  seven  principal  stars  in  the  "  Great  Bear." 
The  God  of  Literature  is  supposed  to  reside  in 
one  of  the  stars  in  this  constellation.  The  "  Great 
Dipper"  is  an  object  of  veneration ;  it  is  supposed 
to  possess  great  influence  over  the  fortunes  of 
men,  and  is  the  guardian  of  the  official  residences 
of  China.  The  five  planets — Mercury,  Venus, 
Mars,  Jupiter,  and  Saturn — rule  over  the  year  and 
the  four  seasons.  These  planets  are  also  con- 
nected with  the  twelve  signs  of  the  zodiac.  These 
signs  are  represented  by  twelve  animals — the  rat, 
cow,  tiger,  rabbit,  dragon,  snake,  horse,  sheep, 
monkey,  cock,  dog,  and  bear.  The  influence 
of  the  planets,  combined  with  other  occult  forces, 
controls  the  destinies  of  individuals  and  nations, 
and  constitutes  the  heathen  providence  that  gov- 
erns the  world.  The  priest,  or  diviner,  casts  the 
horoscope  for  the  year,  and  then  for  every  day, 
hour,  and  moment  of  time.  In  one  year  all  central 
places  will  be  lucky,  another  year  unlucky ;  some- 
times the  north,  sometimes  the  south,  east,  or 
west.     Certain  days   will   be    lucky,   and  certain 

*  For  much  that  I  have  said  in  regard  to  the  superstitions 
of  the  Chinese,  I  am  indebted  to  Drs.  Culbertson,  Morrison, 
Maclay,  and  others. 


256  HISTORY   OF  THE   CHINESE. 

Other  days  unlucky.  It  is  the  duty  of  the  Astro- 
nomical Board,  at  Peking,  to  ascertain  beforehand 
the  peculiar  character  of  each  day  in  the  year,  and 
report  it  in  the  Imperial  Almanac.  Thus  every  act 
of  life  is  supposed  to  be  dependent  upon  these 
ever  -  changing  influences.  The  whole  Chinese 
people  live  and  die  under  bondage  to  the  grossest 
superstitions.  There  are  a  few  wise  men,  how- 
ever, among  the  many  millions  of  China,  who  do 
not  believe  in  these  foolish  vagaries,  but  the  num- 
ber is  small.  The  devil  is  a  cruel  master.  There 
is  no  joy,  peace,  or  hope  in  his  service;  all  is  sor- 
row, darkness,  despair,  and  death. 

Table  Turning. — The  Chinese,  long  before  such 
a  thing  was  thought  of  in  Europe  or  America,  were 
consulting  spirits  in  the  other  world  by  "  medi- 
ums," ''  spirit  writing,"  *' table  turning,"  etc.  The 
**  medium  "  is  a  sorceress  by  profession,  and  is 
supposed  to  be  able  to  do  wonderful  things  by  the 
aid  of  her  patron  demon.  She  is  feared,  and  her 
services  are  often  invoked  to  ward  off  some  threat- 
ened evil,  or  to  conciliate  some  malignant  spirit 
that  is  supposed  to  be  troubling  the  family.  These 
superstitious  beliefs  and  ceremonies,  like  many 
other  customs  of  the  Chinese,  differ  widely  in  dif- 
ferent localities ;  and  it  is  important  for  the  reader 
to  remember  this  fact,  for  he  will  see  contradictory 
statements  in  regard  to  many  of  the  peculiar  usages 
of  different  provinces. 

The  Chinese  believe  that  not  onty  the  spirits  of 
men,  but  the  ghosts  of  animals,  are  able  to  givQ 


SUPERSTITIONS   OF  THE   CHINESE.  257 

information  through  the  "  spirit  medium."  Some 
years  ago  (1852),  Dr.  Culbertson  says,  a  "  Tao- 
ist  priest  professed  to  be  in  communication  with 
the  spirit  of  an  old  fox,  which  had  lived  thousands 
of  years  ago.  The  fox  had  become  a  young  lady, 
and  would  converse  through  the  priest  with  per- 
sons who  wished  to  know  the  best  means  of  pro- 
moting their  worldly  interests."  The  priest  was 
probably  a  ventriloquist. 

The  process  of  '*  table  turning"  is  generally 
about  as  follows,  with  some  local  variations:  The 
table  is  turned  upside  down  upon  a  pair  of  chop- 
sticks laid  at  right  angles  over  the  mouth  of  a  bowl 
filled  with  water.  Four  persons  lay  one  hand  on 
each  leg  of  the  table,  while  with  the  free  hand 
each  grasps  one  hand  of  his  neighbor,  thus  forming 
**  a  circle."  A  prayer  is  now  chanted  by  the  **  me- 
dium," and  soon  the  table  begins  to  move.  The 
persons  forming  the  '*  circle  "  move  with  it,  and  in 
a  few  minutes  it  is  whirling  rapidly  upon  its  axis, 
until  it  is  thrown  off  its  balance  on  the  floor.  This 
is  the  ''  table-turning  mystery."  The  ''  medium  " 
may  have  communication  with  the  spirits  orally, 
but  usually  the  ghosts  prefer  to  write  their  mes~ 
sages,  and  the  table  is  thus  generally  brought  into 
use.  The  table  is  covered  with  sand  or  flour. 
Then  a  small  basket  without  a  handle  is  armed 
with  a  pencil  or  chopstick  tied  to  its  side.  The 
basket  is  then  turned  upside  down,  its  edges  rest- 
ing upon  the  tips  of  one  or  two  fingers  of  two  per- 
sons standing  on  opposite  sides  of  the  table  in 
17 


258  HISTORY  OF  THE   CHINESE. 

such  manner  that  the  pencil  touches  the  surface  of 
the  table.  After  a  short  time  the  basket  begins  to 
move,  and  traces  the  characters,  which  any  liter- 
ary person  can  read.  And  thus  the  message  from 
the  spirit  is  communicated  to  the  medium,  often  on 
subjects  of  which  the  operators  know  nothing. 
Sometimes  the  spirit  invoked  cannot  write,  then 
nothing  can  be  done. 

Charms  and  amulets  of  various  kinds  are  em- 
ployed to  ward  off  evil  influences,  to  drive  away 
malignant  spirits,  and  to  cure  diseases.  In  case 
of  sickness,  spells — consisting  of  mystical  charac- 
ters written  on  paper — are  burned,  and  the  patient 
drinks  the  ashes  in  tea.  Sometimes  the  poor,  when 
suffering  with  extreme  hunger,  resort  to  a  similar 
charm  to  drive  away  the  pangs  of  starvation. 
Mothers  use  amulets  to  protect  their  children  from 
evil  spirits,  bad  luck,  sickness,  etc.  The  **  eight 
diagrams"  are  generally  employed  for  this  pur- 
pose. They  are  engraved  on  a  copper  disk  and 
suspended  by  a  silk  cord  around  the  neck  of  the 
child.  The  Chinese  believe  that  the  evil  spirits 
which  infest  the  home  have  a  great  antipathy  to 
red,  and  that  a  piece  of  red  cloth  worn  on  the  per- 
son will  drive  them  away.  In  addition  to  this  pre- 
caution, some  families  purchase  the  figure  of  a 
white  tiger,  an  imaginary  creature  whose  power 
they  fear.  A  piece  of  meat  is  suspended  from  the 
tongue  of  this  paper  monster,  which  he  is  sup- 
posed to  eat.  The  whole  affair  is  then  burned, 
and  the  danger  from  this  source  averted. 


SUPERSTITIONS    OF   THE    CHINESE.  259 

Tall  pagodas  are  erected  in  the  vicinity  of  cities 
for  protection  against  evil  influences.  The  cele- 
brated porcelain  tower  at  Nanking  was  erected 
for  this  purpose.  It  was  a  wonderful  structure, 
built  by  the  third  emperor  of  the  Ming  dynasty, 
about  A.D.  141 3.  It  was  two  hundred  and  sixty 
feet  high,  and  three  hundred  feet  in  circumference 
at  the  base.  It  was  built  of  porcelain  beautifully 
glazed,  and  of  various  colors.  The  most  promi- 
nent color  was  green,  mingled  with  red,  yellow, 
and  white.  It  was  destroyed  by  the  Taiping  in- 
surgents in  1855,  one  of  the  most  outrageous  pieces 
of  vandalism  on  record  in  the  history  of  the  world. 
Of  course  it  had  no  value  as  a  protection  against 
evil  influences,  but  it  was  justly  classed  with  the 
wonders  of  human  labor  and  skill. 

The  Rev.  Arthur  H.  Smith,  in  his  *' Chinese 
Characteristics, *'  says:  **  It  has  often  been  re- 
marked, and  with  every  appearance  of  truth,  that 
there  is  no  other  civilized  nation  in  existence  which 
is  under  such  bondage  to  superstition  and  credulity 
as  the  Chinese.  Wealthy  merchants  and  learned 
scholars  are  not  ashamed  to  be  seen,  on  the  two 
days  of  the  month  set  apart  for  the  purpose,  wor- 
shiping the  fox,  the  weasel,  the  hedgehog,  the 
snake,  and  the  rat,  all  of  which  are  printed  on 
placards,  styled  'Their  Excellencies,'  and  are 
thought  to  have  an  important  effect  on  human 
destiny."  Could  anything  be  more  absurd  or  ri- 
diculous than  a  high  official,  in  his  robes  of  office, 
on  his   knees   knocking  his  head  on  the  ground 


26o  HISTORY   OF    THE    CHINESE. 

before  the  image  of  a  rat,  and  addressing  the  mis- 
erable little  creature  as  *' Your  Excellency;"  or 
worshiping  a  hedgehog  with  the  same  ceremony? 
Mr.  Smith  says:  "Not  many  years  ago  a  promi- 
nent statesman  fell  on  his  knees  before  a  water- 
snake  which  some  one  had  been  pleased  to  rep- 
resent as  the  embodiment  of  the  God  of  Floods, 
supposed  to  be  the  incarnation  of  an  official  of  a 
former  dynasty,  whose  success  with  brimming  riv- 
ers was  supposed  to  be  marvelous." 

PECULIARITIES  OF  THE  CHINESE. 

The  eccentricities  of  Chinese  character  and  con- 
duct have  become  proverbial  throughout  the  civi- 
lized world.  It  is  a  common  remark  among  Euro- 
peans that  if  you  wish  to  know  how  the  Chinese 
would  do  a  certain  thing,  consider  how  you  would 
do  it,  and  then  reverse  the  process.  Their  na- 
tional isolation  and  the  inordinate  self-conceit  of 
the  race  have  led  to  the  development  of  many 
singular  characteristics  which  distinguish  them  as 
the  most  unique  and  peculiar  people  in  the  world. 
Their  absurd  veneration  of  the  past  has  kept  them 
stationary  in  thought  for  centuries.  Nothing  is 
too  absurd  to  command  respect,  provided  it  be- 
longs to  an  early  antiquity.  Mistakes  in  their 
classics  have  been  carefully  perpetuated  genera- 
tion after  generation,  because  found  in  some  an- 
cient copies.  The  Chinese  have  "the  habit  of 
announcing  as  a  reason  for  a  fact  the  fact  itself. 
'  Why  do  you  not  put  salt  into  your  bread  cakes  ?  ' 
you  ask  a  Chinese  cook.    '  We  do  not  put  salt  into 


SUPERSTITIONS   OF   THE    CHINESE.  26l 

our  bread  cakes,'  is  the  explanation.  *  How  is  it 
with  SO  much  and  such  beautiful  ice  in  your  city 
none  of  it  is  stored  up  for  summer?  '  *  No.  We 
do  not  store  up  ice  for  summer,'  is  the  answer."* 

The  following  list  of  eccentric  variations  from 
what  we  regard  as  right  and  proper  may  suffice 
to  illustrate  what  is  usually  meant  by  ''Chinese 
peculiarities:" 

The  place  of  honor  among  the  Chinese  is  on  the 
left  hand,  and  not  on  the  right  hand  as  with  us. 

The  Chinaman  shakes  his  own  hands,  and  not 
the  hand  of  his  friend  when  greeting  him. 

The  Chinese  magnetic  needle  points  to  the 
south,  and  not  to  the  north. 

The  Chinaman  sleeps  with  his  head  on  a  block 
of  wood,  or  on  a  brick,  instead  of  resting  it  on  a 
pillow. 

The  Chinese  carpenter  pulls  his  plane  toward 
himself,  instead  of  pushing  it  from  him.  He  also 
pulls  his  saw,  instead  of  pushing  it  as  we  do. 

The  tailor  pushes  his  needle  from  him  in  sew- 
ing; and  instead  of  putting  his  *'  goose"  in  the  fire 
to  heat  it,  he  puts  the  fire  in  the  goose. 

The  Chinaman  begins  to  read  at  the  end  of  the 
book,  or  on  the  right  hand,  and  not  at  the  left 
hand  as  we  do;  and  he  reads  from  top  to  bottom 
of  the  page,  and  not  from  left  to  right. 

He  begins  his  dinner  with  the  dessert,  and  ends 
with  the  soup. 

He  scratches  his  foot  when  puzzled,  and  not  his 

*  Smith:  "Chinese  Characteristics." 


262  HISTORY   OF  THE   CHINESE. 

head;  laughs  when  his  friends  die,  or  when  re- 
lating bad  news,  and  weeps  over  trifles. 

When  one  Chinaman  sends  a  present  to  his 
friend,  he  expects  one  in  return  of  equivalent 
value.  He  will  offer  you  his  house  and  all  it  con- 
tains as  a  free  gift,  with  the  understanding  that  he 
means  no  more  than  when  he  asks  you  to  take  a 
seat.  He  does  not  mean  for  you  to  carry  away 
the  chair  when  you  leave. 

The  Chinese  never  uncover  the  head  in  presence 
of  company;  it  is  considered  an  act  of  unbecom- 
ing familiarity. 

A  husband  never  speaks  of  loving  his  wife  any 
more  than  a  European  would  speak  of  loving  his 
wife's  servant  maid.  To  inquire  after  the  health 
of  a  man's  wife,  or  of  anything  concerning  her, 
is  considered  not  merely  an  act  of  rudeness,  but  a 
serious  offense. 

The  gift  of  a  coffin  or  a  burial  suit  of  clothes  is 
considered  an  appropriate  expression  of  filial  piety 
on  the  part  of  children.  Every  Chinaman  desires 
to  see  his  burial  outfit  before  he  dies. 

The  average  Chinaman  seems  to  see  no  more 
moral  wrong  in  a  lie  than  the  Englishman  does  in 
a  pun.      It  is  simply  amusing. 

The  Chinese  have  no  pockets  in  their  clothes. 
The  sleeves  of  the  outer  garment  serve  the  pur- 
pose of  pockets. 

They  do  not  use  feathers  for  beds,  pillows,  or 
clothing,  but  suffer  them  to  be  blown  away  by  the 
wind,  or  decay  in   the  back  yards.     It  is  strange 


SUPERSTITIONS  OF  THE   CHINESE.  263 

that  a  people  who  appear  to  utilize  everything  else 
should  neglect  this. 

A  Chinese  on  being  introduced  to  a  stranger 
inquires  first  as  to  his  honorable  name,  and  sec- 
ondly as  to  Jiis  honor's  age. 

On  meeting  of  friends  the  salutation  is,  *'  Have 
you  eaten  rice?"  The  answer  is  always  in  the  af- 
firmative, though  neither  of  the  persons  may  have 
tasted  food  for  twenty-four  hours. 

The  Chinese  never  drink  cold  water,  but  slake 
their  thirst  with  hot  tea.  They  do  not  drink  milk 
nor  eat  butter,  and  express  great  disgust  for  cheese. 
They  may  eat  snails,  slugs,  and  taste  puppies,  but 
will  not  touch  cheese. 


r' 


"-^ 


TRAVELING   ON   A  WHEELBARROW. 


The  elderly  woman  on  the  right-hand  seat  of  the  wheelbarrow  is  Mks. 
Quay,  the  celebrated  "  Bible  Woman  "  of  the  Southern  Methodist  Mission, 
Shanghai,  China. 


(264) 


CHAPTER  XXII. 
Christian  Missions  Among  the  Chinese. 

TRADITION  ascribes  the  first  effort  to  con- 
vert the  Chinese  to  Christianity  to  the  apostle 
Thomas,  but  there  is  no  authentic  record  to  sup- 
port the  tradition.  That  the  gospel  was  preached 
in  China  at  a  very  early  day,  there  is  good  reason 
to  believe.* 

The  Nestorian  missionaries  arrived  in  China 
about  the  year  505.  The  only  record  of  their  la- 
bors is  a  tablet  found  in  the  province  of  Shen-See, 
in  1625,  known  as  the  '*  Nestorian  monument." 
This  tablet  was  erected  in  788,  and  shows  that 
Christianity  had  made  great  progress  among  the 
Chinese, 

The  Roman  Catholic  Church  has  had  missions 
in  China  since  1288,  when  Monte  Corvino  was 
sent  out  by  Pope  Nicholas  IV.  to  Tartary  and 
China.  He  is  reported  to  have  been  very  success- 
ful, and  the  missions  he  founded  continued  to  pros- 
per until  the  expulsion  of  the  Manchoos  in  1368. 

The  second  period  of  Romish  missions  in  China 
includes  a  space  of  one  hundred  and  fifty  years, 
from  the  time  that  Matteo  Ricci  established  him- 
self  at  Canton    in   1581    to    1736,  when   an  edict 

*See   "Encyclopedia   of    Missions,"   Vol.    I,,  p.    264.     Also 
**  Middle  Kingdom,"  Vol.  II.,  p.  290;  Mosheim,  etc. 

(265) 


266  HISTORY   OF  THE   CHINESE. 

was  issued  by  the  Emperor  Yung-Ching  sending 
all  the  missionaries  out  of  the  empire. 

The  edict  of  Yung-Ching  marks  another  epoch 
in  the  history  of  Romish  missions  in  China.  From 
that  day  to  the  present  time  they  have  had  a  va- 
ried success  in  their  work,  sometimes  in  favor 
with  the  government  and  people,  and  sometimes 
sorely  persecuted.  They  are  still  in  the  field,  and 
claim  a  very  large  membership,  but  recent  statis- 
tics show  that  they  are  decreasing  in  numbers  and 
influence.  The  Romish  Church  in  China  has  not 
only  become  grossly  secular,  but  extensively  pa- 
ganized. It  has  compromised  with  the  supersti- 
tions of  heathenism,  and  sadly  betrayed  the  cause 
of  Christianity  in  China. 

Protestant  fnissions  in  China*  date  from  about 
the  beginning  of  the  present  century.  Dr.  Rob- 
ert Morrison,  of  the  London  Missionary  Society, 
has  the  honor  of  being  the  first  Protestant  mis- 
sionary to  the  Chinese.  He  was  appointed  in  1807, 
but  was  unable  to  obtain  passage  in  an  English 
ship,  because  the  East  India  Company  refused  all 
missionaries  passage  in  any  of  their  ships,  either 
to  India  or  China.  Dr.  Morrison  came  to  Amer- 
ica and  sailed  from  New  York  for  Canton,  China, 
in  the  ship  '*  Trident,"  May  10,  1807.  If  England 
has  the  credit  of  appointing  the  first  Protestant 
missionary  to  China,  our  country  has  the  honor  of 
furnishing  him  passage  to  his  field  of  labor. f 

*  Medhurst's  "  State  and  Prospects  of  China,"  Chap.  X.;  Life 
of  Morrison,  Vol.  I.     "j"  Morrison's  Memoirs,  Vol.  I.,  p.  130. 


CHRISTIAN   MISSIONS.  267 

The  London  Mission  has  done  a  good  work  in 
China.  The  men  and  women  sent  out  have  been 
deeply  interested  in  their  labors,  and  have  mani- 
fested a  high  degree  of  intelligence  and  zeal. 
They  have  been  very  successful  in  making  con- 
verts. 

In  1829  the  American  Board  of  Commissioners 
for  Foreign  Missions  sent  the  Rev.  C.  E.  Bridge- 
man,  the  hrst  American  missionary  to  China,  a 
man  of  ability,  learning,  and  piety.  He  did  a  vast 
amount  of  valuable  literary  work.  He  founded, 
and  conducted  for  many  years,  the  Chinese  Repos- 
itory.   I  knew  him  well,  and  esteemed  him  greatly. 

The  American  Baptist  Missionary  Union  sent  out 
the  first  missionary  to  the  Chinese  in  1833.  He 
resided  at  first  at  Bangkok,  in  Siam,  not  being 
able  to  enter  China. 

In  1838  the  American  Presbyterian  Board  be- 
gan its  first  missionary  station  at  Singapore,  and 
not  in  China,  for  the  same  reason  that  the  Baptists 
began  operations  at  Bangkok. 

In  1842,  at  the  close  of  the  first  opium  war  be- 
tween England  and  China,  five  of  the  principal 
ports  of  China  were  opened  to  foreigners,  and  the 
island  of  Hong-Kong  was  ceded  to  the  English. 
The  country  was  thus  made  accessible  to  Chris- 
tian missionaries,  not  only  at  the  five  ports,  but 
indirectly  to  the  inhabitants  of  the  surrounding 
country.  The  Churches  of  Protestant  Christen- 
dom immediately  prepared  to  improve  the  new 
opportunities     thus     providentially     afforded     for 


268  HISTORY   OF   THE   CHINESE. 

work  in  China.  Societies  and  laborers  increased 
rapidly,  and  the  opening  of  additional  ports  by 
the  Tien-Tsin  treaty  still  further  enlarged  their 
privileges  and  stimulated  their  zeal.  There  are 
now  in  China  the  representatives  of  nearly  forty 
different  missionary  boards.  A  good  degree  of 
success  has  attended  their  efforts  for  the  last  sev- 
eral years,  and  the  native  churches  are  becoming 
more  active  and  earnest  in  their  efforts  to  propa- 
gate the  gospel  among  their  fellow-countrymen. 
Some  of  these  churches  are  not  only  self-  sup- 
porting, but  contribute  liberally  to  the  cause  of 
missions.  The  Bible  societies  of  Europe  and 
America,  and  the  Bible  and  Tract  Society  of  Chi- 
na, are  doing  a  noble  work. 

According  to  the  **  Encyclopedia  of  Missions" 
(1891),  there  are  now  in  China  (or  were  in  1890) 
1,295  missionaries;  ordained  natives,  209;  unor- 
dained  natives,  1,260;  hospitals,  6-i ;  dispensaries, 
43;  patients,  348,439;  organized  churches,  520; 
wholly  self-supporting,  94 ;  communicants,  37,287; 
contributions  of  native  Christians  from  1876  to 
1889,  $36,884.54. 

It  does  not  come  within  the  scope  of  this  volume 
to  give  a  detailed  account  of  missionary  work  and 
its  results  in  China.  A  brief  sketch  in  outline  is 
all  that  can  be  given.  Books  and  periodicals  can 
be  procured  almost  anywhere  from  which  full  in- 
formation in  regard  to  the  particulars  of  the  work 
may  be  obtained.  The  average  reader  would  not 
be  specially  interested  in  the  details  of  the  business 


CHRISTIAN   MISSIONS.  269 

management  of  missionary  boards  and  committees 
at  home,  or  in  the  financial  difficulties  which  limit 
and  embarrass  the  laborers  in  the  field;  hence  I 
omit  them. 

The  Churches  of  America  are  represented  in 
China  by  their  agents,  as  follows:  The  American 
Board  of  Commissioners  for  Foreign  Missions, 
1829  ;  American  Protestant  Episcopal,  1834; 
American  Presbyterian  (North),  1838;  American 
Reformed,  1842;  Methodist  Episcopal  Church, 
(North),  1847  ;  Seventh  Day  Baptist,  1847  ; 
American  Baptist  (South),  1847;  Methodist  Epis- 
copal Church  (South),  1848;  American  Presby- 
terian (South),  1868;  American  Congregational, 
1887.* 

WORK  IN  THE  MISSION  FIELD. 

It  may  interest  my  youthful  readers  to  have 
some  account  of  what  the  missionaries  in  China 
do,  and  how  they  do  it. 

I.  The  first  thing,  of  course,  is  the  acquisition 
of  the  language.  (For  some  account  of  the  Chi- 
nese language  the  reader  is  referred  to  Chapter 
v.).  The  usual  method  is  to  employ  a  Chinese 
teacher  (and  he  should  be  a  man  of  some  literary 
attainments).  You  take  your  seat  with  him  at  a 
table,  and  begin  the  laborious  and  discouraging 
task  of  learning  one  of  the  most  difficult  languages 
in  the  world.  An  old  missionary  said  he  believed 
the  devil  had  invented  the  Chinese  language  to 
keep  the  people  from  becoming  Christians.  Like 
*  "  Encyclopedia  of  Missions,"  1891. 


270  HISTORY   OF   THE   CHINESE. 

the  people,  it  is  heathen^  and  you  have  to  deal  with 
it  accordingly. 

You  are  at  first  practically  deaf  and  dumb,  for 
you  can  neither  speak  nor  hear  with  any  degree 
of  intelligence.  You  place  your  hand  on  some 
object,  perhaps  a  book,  and  look  at  your  teacher. 
He  gives  you  the  Chinese  name  for  it,  which  you 
repeat  after  him,  imitating  as  nearly  as  you  can  the 
strange  sounds  which  he  utters;  and  so  you  pro- 
ceed to  learn  the  names  of  things.  After  you 
have  learned  the  names  of  the  principal  objects  in 
your  room,  you  tackle  simple  phrases  and  sen- 
tences, such  as  the  forms  of  salutation,  the  ques- 
tion, "  What  is  this?  "  and  thus  acquire  a  vocabu- 
lary. There  are  *'  phrase  books,"  prepared  by 
foreigners  for  beginners,  which  aid  in  the  process 
of  learning  the  spoken  language,  and  assist  also  in 
learning  to  read.  You  air  your  limited  vocabu- 
lary with  your  servants  and  the  people  about  you. 
Thus  gradually,  it  may  be  very  gradually,  you  ac- 
quire a  knowledge  of  the  language,  and  by  and  by 
you  are  able  to  deliver  a  short  address,  which  in 
your  complacency  you  may  call  a  sermon,  but  it 
will  be  many  months  before  you  can  really  speak 
the  language  with  sufficient  fluency  and  clearness 
to  be  readily  understood  by  the  people  generally. 
It  is  very  discouraging,  but  "  time,  patience,  and 
perseverance  accomplish  all  things." 

2.  The  next  thing  is  to  deliver  your  message. 
You  have  longed  for  the  time  when  you  could  tell 
the  heathen  the  wonderful  story  of  God's  love  to 


CHRISTIAN  MISSIONS.  271 

man  ;  how  ' '  Christ  Jesus  came  into  the  world  to  save 
sinners;"  how  he  hved  among  men  an  ideal  life  of 
love,  purity,  and  goodness ;  how  he  healed  the  sick, 
comforted  the  unfortunate,  raised  the  dead,  and 
opened  up  the  way  of  life  to  a  fallen  and  guilty 
race.  You  have  desired  most  earnestly  to  tell  them 
how  the  Saviour  "  suffered  for  us  sinners  and  for 
our  salvation;"  how  he  was  crucified;  how  he  rose 
from  the  dead,  and  ascended  to  heaven  where 
he  now  lives  and  reigns  Lord  of  all.  You  have 
dreamed  of  leading  some  poor  benighted  and  lost 
wanderers  in  the  wilderness  of  heathenism  to  God 
and  heaven. 

HINDRANCES  TO  MISSIONARY  WORK. 

But  now  that  you  are  ready  to  enter  upon  the 
work  in  earnest,  you  find  new  difficulties  and 
trials.  You  soon  discover  that  the  people  for 
whose  good  you  have  left  country,  home,  friends, 
and  all  you  hold  dear,  despise  you  and  your 
message.  The  rulers  of  the  countr}^  hate  Chris- 
tianity bitterly,  and  the  educated  classes  treat  it 
and  its  teachers  with  lofty  scorn.  The  common 
people  call  you  a  "  foreign  devil,"  and  the  official 
and  literary  classes  characterize  you  as  a  "  barba- 
rian of  low  grade."  You  have  perhaps  imagined 
that  the  heathen  were  tired  of  the  unmeaning  cer- 
emonies of  their  religion,  and  were  anxious  for 
something  better,  and  that  they  would  hear  you 
gladly.  It  is  therefore  a  severe  disappointment  to 
you  to  learn  that  they  want  nothing  to  do  with  you 
or  your  religion. 


272  HISTORY   OF   THE    CHINESE. 

The  hindrances  to  missionary  work  are  numer- 
ous and  great :  not  only  the  prejudices  against  you 
as  a  foreigner  whom  the  natives  regard  as  an  ene- 
my, but  you  are  an  object  of  suspicion  to  the  igno- 
rant masses .  Fearful  stories  are  told  of  crimes  com- 
mitted by  missionaries  against  nature  and  human- 
ity ;  that  they  use  the  eyes  and  brains  of  little  chil- 
dren for  medicine,  and  many  other  horrible  things. 
There  is  no  other  class  so  unapproachable  as  the 
self-conceited  literati.  They  are  satisfied  with  the 
teachings  of  Confucius,  and  with  the  hoary  tradi- 
tions of  their  country.  They  will  not  listen  to  the 
teachings  of  the  missionaries.  Like  the  scribes 
and  Pharisees,  they  dominate  public  opinion,  and 
are  regarded  as  the  teachers  and  leaders  on  all 
subjects  of  thought.  They  shut  up  the  kingdom 
of  heaven  against  men,  for  they  neither  go  in 
themselves,  neither  suffer  them  that  are  entering 
to  go  in.  (Matthew  xxiii.  13.)  The  hindrances 
may  be  summarized  briefly:  Inveteracy  of  na- 
tional and  race  prejudice ;  false  religions  possess 
the  ground ;  political  jealousy  of  the  rulers ;  social 
customs;  ancestral  worship;  and  the  obstinate  op- 
position of  all  classes  against  change.  Such  are 
some  of  the  difficulties  with  which  the  missionary 
has  to  contend,  in  addition  to  the  carnal  nature  of 
man  which  hates  God. 

The  encouragements  to  hope  for  ultimate  suc- 
cess, if  not  so  numerous  as  the  hindrances,  are 
much  more  powerful:  the  promises  of  God  which 
are  full  and  definite ;  the  success  already  attained 


CHRISTIAN    MISSIONS.  273 

is  great;  Christian  nations  control  the  political 
and  commercial  interests  of  the  world;  they  hold 
in  their  vaults  the  wealth  of  the  world ;  they  com- 
mand the  great  armies  of  the  world,  and  can  dic- 
tate terms  of  peace  or  war  to  all  the  heathen  na- 
tions of  the  earth;  they  possess  the  productive 
intellect  of  the  world,  and  are  the  only  nations 
that  are  making  progress  in  the  arts  and  sciences. 
Above  all,  and  beyond  all  other  reasons  to  hope 
for  the  conversion  of  China,  is  the  inherent  di- 
vine power  of  the  gospel.  Its  Author  is  omnip- 
otent, and  his  omnipotence  is  pledged  for  its  ulti- 
mate triumph  over  all  its  foes;  '*  the  heathen  are 
to  be  given  to  the  Son  of  God  for  his  inheritance, 
and  the  uttermost  parts  of  the  earth  for  his  pos- 
session." **As  I  live,  saith  the  Lord,  every  knee 
shall  bow  to  me,  and  every  tongue  shall  confess  to 
God." 

It  is  not  strange  that  a  conservative  heathen 
people  like  the  Chinese  should  dislike  to  have 
their  religious  belief  taken  from  them,  and  the 
creed  of  a  stranger  substituted  in  its  place ;  to  have 
all  the  traditions  of  a  long  religious  history  abol- 
ished, and  the  history  and  traditions  of  a  com- 
paratively insignificant  race  (the  Jews),  of  whom 
they  know  nothing,  made  the  basis  of  their  new 
religious  faith,  and  thus  required  to  forsake  the 
faith  of  their  ancestors,  whom  they  venerate  with 
idolatrous  superstition.  All  this  we  can  under- 
stand. It  is  natural.  But  how  men  and  women 
who  live  in  a  Christian  land,  and  who  enjoy  the 
18 


274  HISTORY   OF   THE    CHINESfe. 

blessings  of  an  advanced  Christian  civilization, 
can  become  the  enemies  and  persecutors  of  their 
fellow-countrymen  because  they  have  gone  to 
heathen  lands  to  teach  the  gospel  which  has  cre- 
ated this  noble  civilization,  is  not  so  easily  under- 
stood. 

Among  the  sharpest  trials  to  which  the  foreign 
missionary  is  exposed  are  the  cruel  and  unjust 
criticisms  of  his  own  countr^^men  at  home  and 
abroad.  The  secular  press  has  recently  been 
unusually  severe  in  its  animadversions  upon  the 
missionaries  in  China.  False  accusations  have 
been  brought  against  them.  They  have  been 
called  fools  and  fanatics,  and  charged  with  being 
the  cause  of  all  the  troubles  in  China.  This  is  not 
the  result  of  ignorance  on  the  part  of  the  critics, 
for  most  of  them  know  better,  but  the  spirit  of  car- 
nal hostility  to  the  gospel. 

There  are,  however,  some  noble  exceptions  to 
the  disparaging  criticisms  of  the  secular  press,  even 
among  those  who  do  not  proclaim  themselves  the 
friends  of  foreign  missions,  but  who  have  informed 
themselves  as  to  the  work  the  foreign  missionaries 
are  doing  for  the  heathen,  and  who  have  the  hon- 
esty and  the  courage  to  tell  the  truth. 

The  recent  murder  of  missionaries  in  China, 
and  the  destruction  of  mission  property,  have 
called  forth  the  sympathies  of  all  good  people, 
and  also  furnished  an  occasion  for  the  enemies  of 
righteousness  to  say  many  hard  and  bitter  things 
about  missionaries  and  their  work.     A  better  class 


CHRISTIAN   MISSIONS.  275 

of  people  do  not  live  on  the  face  of  the  earth  than 
the  missionaries  in  China.  I  know  them  and  I 
know  their  work,  and  I  know  that  what  I  say  as 
to  their  character  is  true  in  every  letter.  I  had 
the  privilege  of  living  and  working  in  that  field  for 
years,  and  I  know  whereof  I  affirm. 

The  following  communication  from  the  Hon. 
Charles  Denby,  United  States  Minister  to  Chi- 
na, addressed  to  the  Secretary  of  State,  regarding 
the  work  of  the  missionaries  in  China,  is  a  fair 
and  impartial  statement  of  facts.  It  was  written 
in  March,  1895,  and  published  in  all  of  our  leading 
newspapers,  except  those  unfriendly  to  the  cause 
of  Christian  missions.  It  is  an  able  and  ample 
defense  of  those  devout  men  and  women  who  are 
laboring  for  the  good  of  that  benighted  and  de- 
graded people,  **  not  counting  their  lives  dear  unto 
themselves,"  but  sacrificing  everything  for  the  sa- 
cred cause  they  represent.     Mr.  Denby  says: 

*'  The  main  broad  and  crucial  question  to  be 
answered,  touching  missionary  work  in  China,  is: 
Does  it  do  good?  The  question  may  properly  be 
divided  into  two.      Let  us  look  at  them  separately. 

*/ First.  Does  missionary  work  benefit  the  Chi- 
nese ?  I  think  that  no  one  can  controvert  the  pat- 
ent fact  that  the  Chinese  are  enormously  benefited 
by  the  labor  of  the  missionaries.  Foreign  hos- 
pitals are  a  great  boon  to  the  sick.  China,  before 
the  advent  of  the  foreigner,  did  not  know  what 
surgery  was.  There  are  more  than  twenty  hos- 
pitals in  China  which  are  presided  over  by  men  of 


276  HISTORY   OF  THE   CHINESE. 

as  great  ability  as  can  be  found  elsewhere  in  the 
world.  Dr.  Kerr's  hospital  is  one  of  the  great 
institutions  of  its  kind  in  the  world.  The  vice- 
roy, Li  Hung  Chang,  has  for  years  maintained  at 
Tien-Tsin  at  his  own  expense  a  foreign  hospital. 

**In  the  matter  of  education  the  movement  is 
immense.  There  are  schools  and  colleges  all  over 
China  taught  by  the  missionaries.  I  have  been 
present  often  at  the  exhibitions  given  by  these 
schools.  They  show  progress  in  a  great  degree. 
The  educated  Chinaman  who  speaks  English  be- 
comes a  new  man.  He  commences  to  think.  A 
long  time  before  the  war  the  emperor  was  study- 
ing English,  and  it  is  said  was  fast  acquiring  the 
language. 

*'  Nowhere  is  education  more  sought  than  in 
China.  The  government  is  to  some  extent  found- 
ed on  it.  The  systems  of  examination  prevailing 
in  the  district,  the  province,  and  in  Peking,  are  too 
well  known  to  require  comment.  The  graduates 
become  expectant  officials.  There  is  a  Chinese 
imperial  college  at  Peking,  the  Tung  Wen,  pre- 
sided over  by  our  distinguished  fellow-citizen.  Dr. 
W.  A.  P.  Martin;  also  a  university  conducted  by 
the  Methodist  mission. 

**  There  are  also  many  foreign  orphan  asylums 
in  many  cities,  which  take  care  of  thousands  of 
waifs.  The  missionaries  translate  into  Chinese 
many  scientific  and  philosophical  works.  A  for- 
mer missionary,  Dr.  Edkins,  translated  a  whole 
series  of  school  readers. 


CHRISTIAN  MISSIONS.  277 

**  Reflect  that  all  these  benefactions  come  to  the 
Chinese  without  much,  if  any,  cost.  When  charges 
are  made,  they  are  exceedingly  small,  and  are  made 
only  when  they  are  necessary  to  prevent  a  rush, 
which  in  this  vast  population  would  overwhelm  any 
institution.  There  are  various  anti-opium  hospitals, 
where  the  victims  of  this  vice  are  cured.  There 
are  industrial  schools  and  workshops. 

'*  This  is  a  very  brief  and  incomplete  summary 
of  what  missionaries  are  doing  for  the  Chinese. 
Protestants  and  Catholics  from  nearly  every  coun- 
try under  the  sun  are  engaged  in  this  work,  and  in 
my  opinion  they  do  nothing  but  good.  I  leave  out 
of  this  discussion  the  religious  benefits  conferred 
by  converting  Chinese  to  Christianity.  This,  of 
course,  is  the  one  supreme  object  and  purpose  of 
the  missionaries,  to  which  all  else  is  subsidiary,  but 
the  subject  is  not  to  be  discussed  by  a  Minister  of 
the  United  States.  There  is  no  established  reli- 
gion in  the  United  States,  and  the  American  Bud- 
dhist, Mohammedan,  Jew,  infidel,  or  any  other  reli- 
gionist, would  receive  at  the  hands  of  his  country's 
representatives  abroad  exactly  the  same  consider- 
ation and  protection  that  a  Christian  would.  I  can 
only  say  that  converts  to  Christianity  are  numer- 
ous. There  are  supposed  to  be  forty  thousand 
Protestant  converts  now  in  China,  and  at  least  fifty 
thousand  Catholic  converts.  There  are  many  na- 
tive Christian  churches.  The  converts  seem  to  be 
as  devout  as  people  of  any  other  race. 

'*Asfar  as  my  knowledge  extends,  I  can  and  do 


278  HISTORY  OF   THE  CHINESE. 

say  that  the  missionaries  in  China  are  self-sacri- 
ficing ;  that  their  Hves  are  pure ;  that  they  are  de- 
voted to  their  work;  that  their  influence  is  bene- 
ficial to  the  natives ;  that  the  arts  and  sciences  and 
civilization  are  greatly  spread  by  their  efforts; 
that  many  useful  Western  books  are  translated  by 
them  into  Chinese;  that  the}^  are  the  leaders  in  all 
charitable  work,  giving  largely  themselves  and 
personally  disbursing  the  funds  with  which  they 
are  intrusted;  that  they  do  make  converts,  and 
such  converts  are  mentally  benefited  by  conver- 
sion. 

**  In  answer  to  these  statements,  which  are  usu- 
ally acknowledged  to  be  true,  it  does  not  do  to  say, 
as  if  the  answer  were  conclusive,  that  the  literati 
and  gentry  are  usually  opposed  to  missionaries. 
This  antagonism  was  to  have  been  expected.  The 
missionaries  antagonize  the  worship  of  ancestors, 
which  is  one  of  the  fundamental  principles  of  the 
Chinese  polity.  They  compel  their  converts  to 
keep  Sunday  holy.  The  Chinese  have  no  Sab- 
bath. They  work  every  day  except  New-year's 
day  and  other  holidays.  No  new  religion  ever  won 
its  way  without  meeting  with  serious  opposition. 

**  Under  the  treaties  the  missionary  has  the  right 
to  go  to  China.  This  right  being  admitted,  no 
amount  of  antagonism  can  prevent  its  exercise. 

"  In  the  second  place,  let  us  see  whether  and 
how  foreign  countries  are  benefited  by  missionary 
work  done  in  China. 

'*  Missionaries   are   the    pioneers   of    trade   and 


CHRISTIAN  MISSIONS.  279 

commerce.  Civilization,  learning,  and  instruction 
breed  new  wants  which  commerce  supplies.  Look 
at  the  electric  telegraph  now  in  every  province  in 
China  but  one ;  look  at  the  st-eamships  which  ply 
along  the  coast  from  Hong-Kong  to  New-Chwang, 
and  on  the  Yang-tse  up  the  Ichang.  Look  at  the 
cities  which  have  sprung  up  like  Shanghai,  Tien- 
Tsin,  Hankow — handsome  foreign  cities,  object 
lessons  to  the  Chinese.  Look  at  the  railroad  be- 
ing now  built  from  the  Yellow  Sea  to  the  Amoor, 
of  which  about  two  hundred  miles  are  completed. 
Will  any  one  say  that  the  fifteen  hundred  mission- 
aries in  China  of  Protestants,  and  perhaps  more  of 
Catholics,  have  not  contributed  to  these  results? 

"Two  hundred  and  fifty  years  ago  the  pious 
Catholic  fathers  taught  astronomy,  mathematics, 
and  the  languages  at  Peking.  The  interior  of 
China  would  have  been  nearly  unknown  to  the 
outer  world  had  not  the  missionaries  visited  it  and 
described  it.  Some  one  may  say  that  commercial 
agents  might  have  done  as  much ;  but  they  are  not 
allowed  to  locate  in  the  interior.  The  missionary, 
inspired  by  holy  zeal,  goes  everywhere,  and  by  de- 
grees foreign  commerce  and  trade  follow.  I  sup- 
pose that  whenever  an  uncivilized  or  semi-civilized 
country  becomes  civilized,  its  trade  and  dealings 
with  Western  nations  increase.  Humanity  has  not 
devised  any  better,  or  even  as  good,  engine  or 
means  for  civilizing  savage  peoples  as  proselytism 
to  Christianity.  The  history  of  the  world  attests 
this  fact. 


28o  HISTORY  OF   THt    cMliNfESE; 

*'  In  the  interests,  therefore,  of  civiHzatioh,  mk* 
sionaries  ought  not  only  to  be  tolerated,  but  ought  to 
receive  protection  to  which  they  are  entitled  from 
officials  and  encouragement  from  other  classes  of 
people. 

*'  It  is  too  early  now  to  consider  what  effect  the 
existing  war  may  have  on  the  interests  of  missions. 
It  is  quite  probable,  however,  that  the  spirit  of 
progress  developed  by  it  will  make  mission  work 
more  important  and  influential  than  it  has  ever 
been." 

Bishop  Hendrix  says  of  Colonel  Denby,  whom 
he  met  in  Peking  during  his  recent  visit  to  China: 

**  Colonel  Charles  Denby,  American  Minister  to 
China,  is  the  dean  of  the  diplomatic  corps  in  Pe- 
king, having  already  served  his  country  there  for 
the  past  ten  years.  The  exceptional  honor  shown 
him  of  being  continued  at  his  important  post  dur- 
ing the  political  changes  at  home  is  due  to  his 
marked  fitness  for  his  present  position.  Eminent 
as  a  lawyer  in  this  country,  his  legal  learning  has 
been  of  great  service  to  the  Chinese  empire  no  less 
than  to  his  own  countrymen.  His  clear  statement 
to  the  Secretary  of  State  of  the  value  and  progress 
of  Christian  missions  in  China  has  attracted  wide 
attention.  He  has  no  sympathy  with  the  globe- 
trotters or  naval  officers  whose  knowledge  of  Chi- 
na is  confined  to  a  few  treaty  ports,  and  who  have 
never  looked  into  the  work  being  done  by  mission- 
aries, and  yet  who  presume  to  pronounce  unfavor- 
able and  unjust  judgment  on  what  they  know  noth- 


CHRISTIAN  MISSIONS.  281 

ing  about.  Having  the  confidence  of  the  Tsung  Li 
Yamen,  the  foreign  office  of  China,  as  no  other  am- 
bassador has,  in  view  of  his  valued  counsels  dur- 
ing the  late  war  and  by  virtue  of  his  long  official 
residence  in  Peking,  Colonel  Denby  is  in  position 
to  form  a  correct  judgment,  if  anyone  can  do  so. 
Much  weight  should  therefore  be  given  to  the  lan- 
guage of  his  dispatch  to  his  government  near  the 
close  of  the  war,  when  he  said:  *  It  is  quite  prob- 
able that  the  spirit  of  progress  developed  by  the 
war  will  make  mission  work  more  important  and 
influential  than  ever.'  " 


LI   HUisG  CHANG 


(282) 


CONCLUSION. 
The  Present  Condition  of  China. 

1HAVE  not  the  information  necessary  to  a  dis- 
cussion of  the  present  political  condition  of 
China.  Even  men  well  informed  in  regard  to  the 
East  generally,  and  for  many  years  resident  in 
China,  seem  unable  to  comprehend  the  situation ; 
not  only  because  it  is  difficult  to  ascertain  the  facts 
involved  in  the  question,  but  also  because  of  the 
complications  produced  by  the  results  of  the  re- 
cent war  between  China  and  Japan.  This  phase 
of  Chinese  politics  must  be  left  to  the  develop- 
ments of  time  and  the  skill  of  diplomacy.  The 
Christian  world  will  naturally  contemplate  with 
great  concern  the  probable  effects  of  the  war  upon 
the  success  of  missions  in  China.  It  is  too  early 
to  forecast,  with  any  degree  of  certainty,  what  the 
results  will  be.  In  lieu  of  any  opinion  of  my  own 
on  the  subject,  I  quote  the  last  two  paragraphs  of 
an  article  by  Bishop  Hendrix,  in  the  May-June 
( 1896)  number  of  the  Southern  Methodist  Review, 
The  bishop  enjoyed  exceptional  opportunities  for 
gathering  information  in  regard  to  the  affairs  of 
China  during  his  recent  visit,  being  admitted  to  in- 
terviews with  the  highest  dignitaries  of  the  empire, 
notably  with  Li  Hung  Chang,  the  greatest  states- 
man in  Asia;    and  also  with  the  representatives  of 

(283) 


284  HISTORY  OF  THE   CHINESE. 

foreign  countries  resident  at  Peking.  The  bishop 
is  hopeful.  The  message  sent  through  him  from 
Li  Hung  Chang  ought  to  thrill  the  heart  of  Chris- 
tendom. Will  the  Churches  of  America  heed  this 
"Macedonian  cry?"     The  bishop  says: 

*'  The  late  war  has  done  more  to  open  the  way 
for  the  salvation  of  China  than  any  event  in  her 
hoary  history.  Her  old  leaders  recognize  their 
helplessness,  and  are  seeking  counsel.  Reform 
clubs  are  being  formed  by  her  ablest  scholars, 
who  are  asking  papers  from  Christian  missionaries 
and  statesmen  as  to  what  reforms  China  most 
needs,  and  the  best  way  of  bringing  them  about. 
The  able  papers  on  education  which  were  pre- 
pared for  the  Japanese  government  by  Christian 
scholars  in  America  and  Europe  are  now  being 
translated  into  Chinese  for  the  use  of  the  newly 
awakened  among  the  sleeping  masses  of  the  Chi- 
nese empire.  The  payment  of  a  great  war  indem- 
nity is  making  necessary  the  development  of  the 
hidden  resources  of  the  country.  Grave  mounds 
are  no  longer  a  protection  to  the  plains  which  are 
required  for  the  roadbed  of  great  trunk  lines,  or  to 
hillsides  which  hide  the  mineral  wealth  of  the  land. 
Other  massacres  may  yet  occur,  for  the  evil  spirit 
will  rend  and  tear  the  victim  ere  he  consents  to  be 
exorcised ;  but  China,  stunned  by  a  great  blow,  is 
not  indifferent  to  the  good  Samaritan  who  waits  by 
her  bleeding  form  to  pour  in  oil  and  wine.  A 
Christian  missionary  has  been  asked  to  become 
foreign  adviser  to  the  Chinese  government.     Chi- 


CONCLUSION.  285 

nese  officials  of  highest  rank  n  )w  ask  the  once  de- 
spised missionary  and  foreigner  what  can  be  done 
for  their  humiliated  country.  The  greatest  Chi- 
naman of  his  century,  and  the  foremost  statesman 
of  Asia,  Li  Hung  Chang,  after  building  hospitals 
where  foreign  medical  and  surgical  skill  could  be 
had  to  relieve  the  sufferings  of  his  countrymen,  and 
establishing  colleges  where  foreign  science  could 
be  taught  the  promising  youth  of  China,  chosen 
from  the  various  mission  schools-  where  they  had 
received  their  earlier  training,  and  expressing  his 
profound  sense  of  obligation  on  the  part  of  his 
country  for  the  great  service  done  by  the  schools 
and  hospitals  established  by  Christian  missionaries, 
apologizes  to  the  Christian  world  for  the  atrocities 
of  his  ignorant  and  brutal  fellow-countrymen  by 
sending  this  message:  ^Say  to  the  American  feo- 
fle  for  me,  to  se7id  over  more  men  for  the  schools 
and  the  hospitals,  and  I  hope  to  be  in  -position  both 
to  aid  them  and  protect  them.^ 

"This  is  China's  one  articulate  message  to 
the  Christian  nations  which  see  her  unstanched 
wounds,  received  in  a  war  everywhere  disastrous 
by  land  and  sea.  Nothing  short  of  such  humilia- 
tion could  have  called  out  such  an  acknowledg- 
ment of  helplessness  and  of  need.  '  Lo,  these 
shall  come  from  far;  and  lo,  these  from  the  north 
and  from  the  west;  and  these  from  the  land  of 
Sinim/  " 

T'  OF  THK  r 

UNIVERSITY! 
^CALIFOF^ 


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